Yenisseian etymology :

Proto-Yenisseian: *sakar- (~-g-,-G-)

Sino-Caucasian etymology: Sino-Caucasian etymology

Meaning: hard

Kottish: šagar "hart, zäh"; (Бол.) šakarɨga "hardly (туго)"

Arin: berik sagara (Лоск.) "hardly (туго)" [lit. "very hardly"]

Comments: ССЕ 270.

Sino-Caucasian etymology :

Proto-Sino-Caucasian: *c̣ắq̇V̆ ( ~ -xq̇-)

Meaning: strength, strong, hard

Borean etymology: Borean etymology

North Caucasian: *c̣_ăq̇V

Sino-Tibetan: *chăk

Yenisseian: *sa(ʔ)kar- (~-g-,-G-)

Basque: *saka-r̄

Comments and references : HGC 40.

North Caucasian etymology :

Proto-North Caucasian: *c̣_ăq̇V

Sino-Caucasian etymology: Sino-Caucasian etymology

Meaning: strength, power

Proto-Nakh: *ni-c̣q̇ (*ni-c̣H)

Proto-Avaro-Andian: *c̣:Vq̇:V

Proto-Lak: c̣aq̇

Proto-Dargwa: *c̣aq̇

Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The Lak. word may be borrowed from Darg. (or vice versa), but one of these forms is still genuine. The PN form has a very specific structure - with a prefix *ni- and reduction of the second part. The prefix should be perhaps analysed as the PEC reflexive pronominal stem *HinV- - i.e. *HinV-c̣_ăq̇V '(one's) own power'.

Nakh etymology :

Proto-Nakh: *ni-c̣q̇ (*ni-c̣H)

North Caucasian etymology: North Caucasian etymology

Meaning: strength, power

Chechen: nic̣q̇

Ingush: niz

Batsbi: nic̣q̇

Comments: 5th class in Chech., 6th class in Ing. and Bacb. Cf. also Shar. nic̣ʁ id.

Avar-Andian etymology :

Protoform: *c̣:Vq̇:V

North Caucasian etymology: North Caucasian etymology

Meaning: very, strongly

Avar: c̣aq̇:

Chadakolob: c̣aq̇

Comments: The lit. Av. form is dissimilated < *c̣:aq̇: (weak *c̣ would give č̣ in Chad.). Av. c̣aq̇: > Cham. c̣aq̇:, Inkh., Gin., Bezht., Gunz. c̣aq̇. Tsez. c̣aq̇-tow 'very'.

Lak etymology :

Lak root: c̣aq̇

North Caucasian etymology: North Caucasian etymology

Meaning: strength, power

Lak form: c̣aq̇

Dargwa etymology :

Proto-Dargwa: *c̣aq̇

North Caucasian etymology: North Caucasian etymology

Meaning: strength, power

Akusha: c̣aq̇

Sino-Tibetan etymology :

Proto-Sino-Tibetan: *chăk

Sino-Caucasian etymology: Sino-Caucasian etymology

Meaning: hard, difficult

Tibetan: chegs troublesome, difficult, hard.

Kachin: diŋsaʔ² to trouble, annoy.

Lushai: sak hard (not soft, not easy), difficult.

Kiranti: *c[e]k

Comments: Initial *c- in PK is irregular.

Kiranti etymology :

Proto-Kiranti: *c[e]k (/ʔc-)

Sino-Tibetan etymology: Sino-Tibetan etymology

Meaning: hard

Sunwar: caktā

Tulung: cǝk- become hard, old, fully fermented

Kaling: 'cekpä

Limbu: kecāba, cāhā hard

Kulung: chɔ̄ma

Yamphu: cikma 'become ripe, fermented'

Comments: Yamphu has also chakma 'be hard' (practically the only word with ch-, thus probably borrowed).

Kulung dictionary :

Entry: chɔ:ma

Kiranti etymology: Kiranti etymology

Grammar: vi-3 [1: chɔk- 2: chɔ:-]

Meaning: be hard (not soft)

Nepali: sāhro hunu.

Yamphu dictionary :

Entry: cikma I

Kiranti etymology: Kiranti etymology

Stem: <cig- ; cik->

Grammar: v.intr.

Meaning: to become ripe, to mature, to become fermented.

Comments: Cf. chakma.

Nepali: cipnu

Basque etymology :

Proto-Basque: *saka-r̄

Sino-Caucasian etymology: Sino-Caucasian etymology

Meaning: 1 rough, coarse, rude 2 lewd, immodest 3 crust (on skin), scab 4 scraps, rubbish 5 husk (of wheat)

Bizkaian: zakar 1, 4

Gipuzkoan: zakar 1, 4

High Navarrese: zakar 3, 4

Low Navarrese: zakar 3

Salazarese: zakar 5

Lapurdian: zakhar 1, 3

Baztanese: zakar 1, 2

Zuberoan: zákhar 3

Roncalese: zakar 4, 5

Comments: The Bsq word is much like PY *sa(ʔ)kar- 'hard, tough' in form and meaning.

Long-range etymologies :

Borean (approx.) : CVKV

Meaning : hard

Sino-Caucasian : *c̣ắ(x)q̇V̆

Amerind (misc.) : *cak 'bone' (actually: 'hard, strong; dry') (R 83) [+ A K]; *caki 'dry' (R 188) [+ A]; ? *cak 'stone' (R 694) [+ A K]

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