Holmer, Nils M. 1938. Studies on Argyllshire Gaelic. Uppsala: Almgvist & Wiksells. Holmer, Nils M. 1957. The Gaelic of Arran. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. Holmer, Nils M. 1962. The Gaelic of Kintyre. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Other Sources:Dorian, Nancy C. 1978. "The Fate of Morphological Complexity in Language Death: Evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic," Lg 54, 590-609.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h (th) ch kh (ʔ) b d̪ (d ) ɟ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š ç x h v (z) ɣ m n̪ n̪̥ (n) ñ ñ̥ ŋ l l̥ lɯ ʎ (ʎ̥) r r̥
Grammar:Coetsem, Frans van and Herbert L. Kufner, eds. 1972. Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
Other Sources:
Antonsen, Elmer M. 1975. A Concise Grammar of the Older Runic Inscriptions. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p t̪ k kʷ b d̪ ɡ f θ s̪ h hʷ z̪ m n̪ l̪ r
Stops:p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ
Fricatives:f θ s̪ z̪ h hʷ
Nasals:m n̪
Laterals:l̪
Vibrants:r
Glides:j w
Vowel system:
Front Vowels:i e
Central Vowels:a
Back Vowels:u
Long Vowels:ī ǣ ū ɔ̄
Diphthongs:ei ai eu au
Syllable:nˈ lˈ rˈ
Stress:initial
Syntax:SOV NA GN/NG ND N-POSS
Prep/Post:PREP/POST
Number:1850
Language:Gothic
Dialect:Crimean
Location:SW Russia (Crimea)
Population:extinct (c. 1700 A.D.)
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
Grammar:Stearns, MacDonald, Jr. 1978. Crimean Gothic. Saratoga, CA: Anma Libri.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k b d̪ f θ s̪ š x v ɣ m n̪ l̪ r
Stops:p b t̪ d̪ k
Fricatives:f v θ s̪ š x ɣ
Nasals:m n̪
Laterals:l̪
Vibrants:r
Glides:j
Vowel system:
Front Vowels:i e
Central Vowels:ǝ a
Back Vowels:u o
Long Vowels:ī ē ā ū ō
Noun Number:s p
Demonstratives:2
Articles:def
Syntax:SVO AN
Number:1851
Language:Gothic
Location:E Bulgaria
Population:c. 350 A.D.
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
Dictionary:Regan, Brian T. 1974. Dictionary of the Biblical Gothic Language. Phoenix: Wellspring Books.
Grammar:
Mossé, Fernand. 1956. Manuel de la langue gotique. Paris: Aubier. Krause, Wolfgang. 1968. Handbuch des Gotischen. Munich: C. H. Beck'sche.
Other Sources:
Moulton, William G. 1948. "The Phonemics of Gothic," Lg 24, 76-86. Marchand, James W. 1973. The Sounds and Phonemes of Wulfila's Gothic. The Hague: Mouton.
Consonant system:
p t̪ k kʷ b d̪ ɡ f θ s xʷ h z m n̪ l̪ r
Stops:p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ
Fricatives:f θ s z xʷ h
Nasals:m n̪
Laterals:l̪
Vibrants:r
Modified Consonants:c̄ s m n l r
Glides:j w
Vowel system:
Front Vowels:i e
Central Vowels:a
Back Vowels:u o
Long Vowels:v̄ all
Diphthongs:iu
Stress:initial
Noun Number:s p
Gender:m f n
Demonstratives:2
Articles:def
Pronouns:
1 4d 4 2 5d 5 *3mfn *6mfn
Syntax:SOV NA NG DN N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post:PREP
Comments:Except for Runic inscriptions, Wulfila's translation of the Bible in Gothic is the earliest Germanic Text.
Number:1852
Language:Vandalic
Location:Germany
Population:extinct
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
Consonant system:
Number:1853
Language:Burgundian
Location:Germany
Population:extinct
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
Consonant system:
Number:1854
Language:Runic
Location:Norway
Population:c. 500 A.D.
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Grammar:Antonsen, Elmer H. 1975. A Concise Grammar of the Older Runic Inscriptions. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
Consonant system:
p t k b d ɡ f θ s h z m n ŋ l r
Stops:p b t d k ɡ
Fricatives:f θ s z h
Nasals:m n ŋ
Laterals:l
Vibrants:r
Glides:j w
Vowel system:
Front Vowels:i e
Central Vowels:a
Back Vowels:u
Long Vowels:ī ǣ ū ɔ̄
Diphthongs:ai iu ɵu au
Noun Number:s p
Syntax:SOV NA GN(inan)/NG(anim) ND N-NUM N-POSS
Prep/Post:PREP
Comments:Earliest attestation of a Germanic language.
Number:1855
Language:Danish
Location:Denmark
Population:5 million
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Dictionary:
Nielsen, B. Kjaerulff. 1964. Engelsk-Dansk Ordbog. Copenhagen: Nordisk. Vinterberg, Hermann and C. A. Bodelsen: 1954,1956. Dansk-Engelsk Ordbog, 2 vols. Copenhagen: Nordisk.
Grammar:
Bredsdorff, Elias, 1970. Danish: An Elementary Grammar and Reader. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press. Diderichsen, Paul. 1972. Essentials of Danish Grammar. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
TextBooks:
Koefoed, H. A. 1964. Teach Yourself Danish. London: English Universities Press. Norlev, Erling and H. A. Koefoed. 1973. The Way to Danish. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh ʔ f s š h v ð ɣ ʁ m n ŋ l
Stops:p ph t th k kh ʔ
Fricatives:f v ð s š ɣ h
Nasals:m n ŋ
Laterals:l
Vibrants:ʁ
Glides:j
Vowel system:
Front Vowels:i y e ø ɛ œ
Central Vowels:ǝ a
Back Vowels:u o ɔ
Long Vowels:v̄ all but ǝ
Diphthongs:ai ɔi au ɔu ɛu œu eu iu yu øu
Stress:usually initial
Noun Number:s p
Gender:common (m+f) neuter
Demonstratives:2
Articles:def indef
Pronouns:
1 4 2 5 3mfnc 6 c=common masc and fem are semantically determined by sex; common and neuter are grammatically determined by noun class. politeness: 2 & 5 each have polite and intimate forms; however 2 pol=5 pol
Syntax:SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post:PREP
Number:1856
Language:Swedish
Location:Sweden
Population:9 million
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Dictionary:Wessely, Ignaz Emanuel. 1941. Wessely's Swedish-English Dictionary. Philadelphia: David McKay.
TextBooks:
McClean, R. J. 1969. Teach Yourself Swedish. London : English Universities Press. Borland, Harold H. 1970. Swedish for Students. London: George G. Harrap.
Other Sources:AL 7:8
Consonant system:
ph t̪h ṭh kh b d̪ ḍ ɡ f s̪ ṣ̌ ç h v m n̪ ṇ ŋ l̪ ḷ ɹ
Stops:ph b t̪h d̪ ṭh ḍ kh ɡ
Fricatives:f v s̪ ṣ̌ ç h
Nasals:m n̪ ṇ ŋ
Laterals:l̪ ḷ
Vibrants:ɹ
Modified Consonants:c̄
Glides:j
Vowel system:
Front Vowels:y I ɛ œ æ
Central Vowels:ʉ ǝ a
Back Vowels:ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels:ī ȳ Ȳ ē ↔ō ɛ̄ ʋ̄ ō ɑ̄
Tones:fall fall-fall (falling tone accurs on monosyllabic words, fall-fall on polysyllabic words.)
Stress:initial
Noun Number:s p
Gender:common (m+f) neuter
Demonstratives:2
Articles:def indef
Pronouns:
1 4 2 5 3mfnc 6 c=common politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol
Syntax:SVO AN GN(NG) DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post:PREP
Number:1857
Language:Norwegian
Location:Norway
Population:4 million
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Dictionary:
Gleditsch, T. 1948. Engelsk-Norsk Ordbok. Oslo: H. Aschehoug. Haugen, Einar, ed. 1965. Norwegian-English Dictionary. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
TextBooks:
Haugen, Einar. 1964. Spoken Norwegian. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Marm, Ingvald. 1967. Teach Yourself Norwegian. New York: David McKay.
Other Sources:Vanvik, Arne. 1972. "A Phonetic-Phonemic Analysis of Standard Eastern Norwegian," Norwegian Journal of Linguistics 25:2, 119-64.
Consonant system:
p t̪ (ṭ) k b d̪ (ḍ) ɡ f s̪ (ṣ̌) š ç h v m n̪ (ṇ) ŋ l̪ (ḷ) ɾ
Stops:p b t̪ d̪ (ṭ) (ḍ) k ɡ
Fricatives:f v s̪ (ṣ̌) š ç h
Nasals:m n̪ (ṇ) ŋ
Laterals:l̪ (ḷ)
Vibrants:ɾ
Modified Consonants:c̄
Glides:j
Vowel system:
Front Vowels:y I ø ɛ æ
Central Vowels:ʉ ǝ a
Back Vowels:ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels:ī ȳ ē ↔ō ǣ ʉ̄ ā ū ō
Diphthongs:ai æʉ ɛi ɔi ʉi øy øu æi æu
Tones:lo-ris hi-fall-ris
Stress:mostly initial
Noun Number:s p
Gender:common (m+f) neuter
Demonstratives:2
Articles:def indef
Pronouns:
1 4 2 5 3mfnc 6 c=common politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol
Syntax:SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N N-POSS/(POSS-N) D+A+N
Prep/Post:PREP
Comments:Modern Norwegian has two different standards. Bokmål reflects the heavy Danish influence during the Middle Ages, while Nynorsk represents an attempt to preserve a 'purer' older form of Norwegian, denuded of Danish borrowings. There is some hostility between the two gruops, but the two varieties of speech are easily mutually intellegible.
Number:1858
Language:Norwegian
Dialect:Trondheim
Location:Norway
Population:4 million
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Other Sources:Vanvik, Arne. 1966. "A Phonetic-Phonemic Analysis of the Dialect of Trondheim. Oslo: Universititsforlaget.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h ṭh ch kh b d̪ ḍ ɟ ɡ f s š ç h v m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ l̪ ḷ ʎ ʎ̥ ɾ ɾ̣
Stops:ph b t̪h d̪ ṭh ḍ ch ɟ kh ɡ
Fricatives:f v s š ç h
Nasals:m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
Laterals:l̪ ḷ ʎ ʎ̥
Vibrants:ɾ ɾ̣
Modified Consonants:c̄
Glides:j
Vowel system:
Front Vowels:I Y ɛ œ æ
Central Vowels:ʉ
Back Vowels:ʋ ɔ ɑ
Long Vowels:ī ȳ ē ↔ō ǣ ʉ̄ ū ō ɑ̄
Diphthongs:ei øy øʉ (ɑi) (ɔy)
Syllable:(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C) nˈ lˈ
Tones:lo-level hi-fall
Syntax:SVO
Number:1859
Language:Icelandic
Location:Iceland
Population:210,000
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Glendening, P. J. T. 1961. Teach Yourself Icelandic. London: English Universities Press. TD: Jónsson, Snoebjörn. 1966. A Primer of Modern Icelandic. London: Oxford Univ Press.
Other Sources:
Haugen, Einar. 1958. "The Phonemes of Modern Icelandic," Lg 34, 55-88. Malone, Kemp. 1970. "The Phonemes of Modern Icelandic," in Studies in Honor of Albert Morey Sturtevant, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 5-21. AL 7:8
Consonant system:
p ph t th k kh f θ s h v ð m n ŋ l r
Stops:p ph t th k kh
Fricatives:f v θ ð s h
Nasals:m n ŋ
Laterals:l
Vibrants:r
Modified Consonants:c̄
Glides:j
Vowel system:
Front Vowels:i I Y ø ɛ
Central Vowels:a
Back Vowels:u ɔ
Long Vowels:v̄ all
Diphthongs:ui ei oi ou ai øi au
Stress:initial
Noun Number:s p
Gender:m f n
Demonstratives:2
Articles:def
Pronouns:
1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3mfn 6mfn politeness: 2 forms of 2: (1) intim [2 pol=5] (2) pol
Syntax:SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
Prep/Post:PREP
Number:1860
Language:Faroese
Location:Netherlands (Faroe Islands)
Population:40,000
Classification:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Dictionary:Svabo, J. C. 1966, 1970. Dictionarium Færoense. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
Grammar:Lockwood, W. G. 1955. An Introduction to Modern Faroese. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
Consonant system:
ph t̪h kh b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s ṣ š h v m n̪ ñ ŋ l̪ ʎ r
Stops:ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ
Affricates:č ɡ̌
Fricatives:f v s ṣ š h
Nasals:m n̪ ñ ŋ
Laterals:l̪ ʎ
Vibrants:r
Modified Consonants:c̄ p b t d k ɡ f s m n l r
Glides:j w
Vowel system:
Front Vowels:I Y ɛ œ
Central Vowels:a
Back Vowels:ʋ ɔ
Long Vowels:ī ē ↔ō ā ū ō
Diphthongs:ɛa ɔa ʋY ɔu ʉu ai ɛi ɔi
Stress:initial
Noun Number:s p
Gender:m f n
Demonstratives:2
Articles:def indef
Pronouns:
1 4 2 5 3mfn 6mfn politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol