Holmer, Nils M. 1938. Studies on Argyllshire Gaelic. Uppsala: Almgvist & Wiksells. Holmer, Nils M. 1957. The Gaelic of Arran. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. Holmer, Nils M. 1962. The Gaelic of Kintyre. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
OTHERSOURC:Dorian, Nancy C. 1978. "The Fate of Morphological Complexity in Language Death: Evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic," Lg 54, 590-609.
CONSONANTS:
ph t̪h (th) ch kh (ʔ) b d̪ (d ) ɟ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s š ç x h v (z) ɣ m n̪ n̪̥ (n) ñ ñ̥ ŋ l l̥ lɯ ʎ (ʎ̥) r r̥
GRAMMAR:Smith, A. S. D. 1965. Cornish Simplified. Cornwall: An Lef Kernewek.
CONSONANTS:
p t k b d ɡ č ɡ̌ f θ s š x h v ð m n l r
STOPS:p b t d k ɡ
AFFRICATES:č ɡ̌
FRICATIVES:f v θ ð s š x h
NASALS:m n
LATERALS:l
VIBRANTS:r
GLIDES:j w w̥
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:I ɛ æ
BACKVOWELS:ʋ ɔ
LONGVOWELS:ī ȳ ē ā ū ō
DIPHTHONGS:aw ow aj ej ew oj
STRESS:penult
NOUNNUMBER:s p
GENDER:m f
DEMONSTRAT:2
ARTICLES:def
PRONOUNS:
1 4 2 5 3mf 6
SYNTAX:SVO NA/(AN) NG ND NUM-N POSS-N/(POSS-N-POSS)
PREPPOST:PREP
NUMBER:1849
LANGUAGE:Proto-Germanic
LOCATION:N Germany
POPULATION:c. 500 B. C.
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic
GRAMMAR:Coetsem, Frans van and Herbert L. Kufner, eds. 1972. Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
OTHERSOURC:
Antonsen, Elmer M. 1975. A Concise Grammar of the Older Runic Inscriptions. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. AL 7:8
CONSONANTS:
p t̪ k kʷ b d̪ ɡ f θ s̪ h hʷ z̪ m n̪ l̪ r
STOPS:p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ
FRICATIVES:f θ s̪ z̪ h hʷ
NASALS:m n̪
LATERALS:l̪
VIBRANTS:r
GLIDES:j w
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:i e
CENTRALVOW:a
BACKVOWELS:u
LONGVOWELS:ī ǣ ū ɔ̄
DIPHTHONGS:ei ai eu au
SYLLABLE:nˈ lˈ rˈ
STRESS:initial
SYNTAX:SOV NA GN/NG ND N-POSS
PREPPOST:PREP/POST
NUMBER:1850
LANGUAGE:Gothic
DIALECT:Crimean
LOCATION:SW Russia (Crimea)
POPULATION:extinct (c. 1700 A.D.)
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
GRAMMAR:Stearns, MacDonald, Jr. 1978. Crimean Gothic. Saratoga, CA: Anma Libri.
CONSONANTS:
p t̪ k b d̪ f θ s̪ š x v ɣ m n̪ l̪ r
STOPS:p b t̪ d̪ k
FRICATIVES:f v θ s̪ š x ɣ
NASALS:m n̪
LATERALS:l̪
VIBRANTS:r
GLIDES:j
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:i e
CENTRALVOW:ǝ a
BACKVOWELS:u o
LONGVOWELS:ī ē ā ū ō
NOUNNUMBER:s p
DEMONSTRAT:2
ARTICLES:def
SYNTAX:SVO AN
NUMBER:1851
LANGUAGE:Gothic
LOCATION:E Bulgaria
POPULATION:c. 350 A.D.
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
DICTIONARY:Regan, Brian T. 1974. Dictionary of the Biblical Gothic Language. Phoenix: Wellspring Books.
GRAMMAR:
Mossé, Fernand. 1956. Manuel de la langue gotique. Paris: Aubier. Krause, Wolfgang. 1968. Handbuch des Gotischen. Munich: C. H. Beck'sche.
OTHERSOURC:
Moulton, William G. 1948. "The Phonemics of Gothic," Lg 24, 76-86. Marchand, James W. 1973. The Sounds and Phonemes of Wulfila's Gothic. The Hague: Mouton.
CONSONANTS:
p t̪ k kʷ b d̪ ɡ f θ s xʷ h z m n̪ l̪ r
STOPS:p b t̪ d̪ k ɡ kʷ
FRICATIVES:f θ s z xʷ h
NASALS:m n̪
LATERALS:l̪
VIBRANTS:r
MODIFIEDCO:c̄ s m n l r
GLIDES:j w
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:i e
CENTRALVOW:a
BACKVOWELS:u o
LONGVOWELS:v̄ all
DIPHTHONGS:iu
STRESS:initial
NOUNNUMBER:s p
GENDER:m f n
DEMONSTRAT:2
ARTICLES:def
PRONOUNS:
1 4d 4 2 5d 5 *3mfn *6mfn
SYNTAX:SOV NA NG DN N-NUM N-POSS
PREPPOST:PREP
COMMENTS:Except for Runic inscriptions, Wulfila's translation of the Bible in Gothic is the earliest Germanic Text.
NUMBER:1852
LANGUAGE:Vandalic
LOCATION:Germany
POPULATION:extinct
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
CONSONANTS:
NUMBER:1853
LANGUAGE:Burgundian
LOCATION:Germany
POPULATION:extinct
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: East
CONSONANTS:
NUMBER:1854
LANGUAGE:Runic
LOCATION:Norway
POPULATION:c. 500 A.D.
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
GRAMMAR:Antonsen, Elmer H. 1975. A Concise Grammar of the Older Runic Inscriptions. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
CONSONANTS:
p t k b d ɡ f θ s h z m n ŋ l r
STOPS:p b t d k ɡ
FRICATIVES:f θ s z h
NASALS:m n ŋ
LATERALS:l
VIBRANTS:r
GLIDES:j w
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:i e
CENTRALVOW:a
BACKVOWELS:u
LONGVOWELS:ī ǣ ū ɔ̄
DIPHTHONGS:ai iu ɵu au
NOUNNUMBER:s p
SYNTAX:SOV NA GN(inan)/NG(anim) ND N-NUM N-POSS
PREPPOST:PREP
COMMENTS:Earliest attestation of a Germanic language.
NUMBER:1855
LANGUAGE:Danish
LOCATION:Denmark
POPULATION:5 million
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
DICTIONARY:
Nielsen, B. Kjaerulff. 1964. Engelsk-Dansk Ordbog. Copenhagen: Nordisk. Vinterberg, Hermann and C. A. Bodelsen: 1954,1956. Dansk-Engelsk Ordbog, 2 vols. Copenhagen: Nordisk.
GRAMMAR:
Bredsdorff, Elias, 1970. Danish: An Elementary Grammar and Reader. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press. Diderichsen, Paul. 1972. Essentials of Danish Grammar. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
TEXTBOOKS:
Koefoed, H. A. 1964. Teach Yourself Danish. London: English Universities Press. Norlev, Erling and H. A. Koefoed. 1973. The Way to Danish. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
CONSONANTS:
p ph t th k kh ʔ f s š h v ð ɣ ʁ m n ŋ l
STOPS:p ph t th k kh ʔ
FRICATIVES:f v ð s š ɣ h
NASALS:m n ŋ
LATERALS:l
VIBRANTS:ʁ
GLIDES:j
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:i y e ø ɛ œ
CENTRALVOW:ǝ a
BACKVOWELS:u o ɔ
LONGVOWELS:v̄ all but ǝ
DIPHTHONGS:ai ɔi au ɔu ɛu œu eu iu yu øu
STRESS:usually initial
NOUNNUMBER:s p
GENDER:common (m+f) neuter
DEMONSTRAT:2
ARTICLES:def indef
PRONOUNS:
1 4 2 5 3mfnc 6 c=common masc and fem are semantically determined by sex; common and neuter are grammatically determined by noun class. politeness: 2 & 5 each have polite and intimate forms; however 2 pol=5 pol
SYNTAX:SVO AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
PREPPOST:PREP
NUMBER:1856
LANGUAGE:Swedish
LOCATION:Sweden
POPULATION:9 million
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
DICTIONARY:Wessely, Ignaz Emanuel. 1941. Wessely's Swedish-English Dictionary. Philadelphia: David McKay.
TEXTBOOKS:
McClean, R. J. 1969. Teach Yourself Swedish. London : English Universities Press. Borland, Harold H. 1970. Swedish for Students. London: George G. Harrap.
OTHERSOURC:AL 7:8
CONSONANTS:
ph t̪h ṭh kh b d̪ ḍ ɡ f s̪ ṣ̌ ç h v m n̪ ṇ ŋ l̪ ḷ ɹ
STOPS:ph b t̪h d̪ ṭh ḍ kh ɡ
FRICATIVES:f v s̪ ṣ̌ ç h
NASALS:m n̪ ṇ ŋ
LATERALS:l̪ ḷ
VIBRANTS:ɹ
MODIFIEDCO:c̄
GLIDES:j
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:y I ɛ œ æ
CENTRALVOW:ʉ ǝ a
BACKVOWELS:ʋ ɔ
LONGVOWELS:ī ȳ Ȳ ē ↔ō ɛ̄ ʋ̄ ō ɑ̄
TONES:fall fall-fall (falling tone accurs on monosyllabic words, fall-fall on polysyllabic words.)
STRESS:initial
NOUNNUMBER:s p
GENDER:common (m+f) neuter
DEMONSTRAT:2
ARTICLES:def indef
PRONOUNS:
1 4 2 5 3mfnc 6 c=common politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol
SYNTAX:SVO AN GN(NG) DN NUM-N POSS-N
PREPPOST:PREP
NUMBER:1857
LANGUAGE:Norwegian
LOCATION:Norway
POPULATION:4 million
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
DICTIONARY:
Gleditsch, T. 1948. Engelsk-Norsk Ordbok. Oslo: H. Aschehoug. Haugen, Einar, ed. 1965. Norwegian-English Dictionary. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
TEXTBOOKS:
Haugen, Einar. 1964. Spoken Norwegian. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Marm, Ingvald. 1967. Teach Yourself Norwegian. New York: David McKay.
OTHERSOURC:Vanvik, Arne. 1972. "A Phonetic-Phonemic Analysis of Standard Eastern Norwegian," Norwegian Journal of Linguistics 25:2, 119-64.
CONSONANTS:
p t̪ (ṭ) k b d̪ (ḍ) ɡ f s̪ (ṣ̌) š ç h v m n̪ (ṇ) ŋ l̪ (ḷ) ɾ
STOPS:p b t̪ d̪ (ṭ) (ḍ) k ɡ
FRICATIVES:f v s̪ (ṣ̌) š ç h
NASALS:m n̪ (ṇ) ŋ
LATERALS:l̪ (ḷ)
VIBRANTS:ɾ
MODIFIEDCO:c̄
GLIDES:j
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:y I ø ɛ æ
CENTRALVOW:ʉ ǝ a
BACKVOWELS:ʋ ɔ
LONGVOWELS:ī ȳ ē ↔ō ǣ ʉ̄ ā ū ō
DIPHTHONGS:ai æʉ ɛi ɔi ʉi øy øu æi æu
TONES:lo-ris hi-fall-ris
STRESS:mostly initial
NOUNNUMBER:s p
GENDER:common (m+f) neuter
DEMONSTRAT:2
ARTICLES:def indef
PRONOUNS:
1 4 2 5 3mfnc 6 c=common politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol
SYNTAX:SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N N-POSS/(POSS-N) D+A+N
PREPPOST:PREP
COMMENTS:Modern Norwegian has two different standards. Bokmål reflects the heavy Danish influence during the Middle Ages, while Nynorsk represents an attempt to preserve a 'purer' older form of Norwegian, denuded of Danish borrowings. There is some hostility between the two gruops, but the two varieties of speech are easily mutually intellegible.
NUMBER:1858
LANGUAGE:Norwegian
DIALECT:Trondheim
LOCATION:Norway
POPULATION:4 million
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
OTHERSOURC:Vanvik, Arne. 1966. "A Phonetic-Phonemic Analysis of the Dialect of Trondheim. Oslo: Universititsforlaget.
CONSONANTS:
ph t̪h ṭh ch kh b d̪ ḍ ɟ ɡ f s š ç h v m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ l̪ ḷ ʎ ʎ̥ ɾ ɾ̣
STOPS:ph b t̪h d̪ ṭh ḍ ch ɟ kh ɡ
FRICATIVES:f v s š ç h
NASALS:m n̪ ṇ ñ ŋ
LATERALS:l̪ ḷ ʎ ʎ̥
VIBRANTS:ɾ ɾ̣
MODIFIEDCO:c̄
GLIDES:j
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:I Y ɛ œ æ
CENTRALVOW:ʉ
BACKVOWELS:ʋ ɔ ɑ
LONGVOWELS:ī ȳ ē ↔ō ǣ ʉ̄ ū ō ɑ̄
DIPHTHONGS:ei øy øʉ (ɑi) (ɔy)
SYLLABLE:(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C) nˈ lˈ
TONES:lo-level hi-fall
SYNTAX:SVO
NUMBER:1859
LANGUAGE:Icelandic
LOCATION:Iceland
POPULATION:210,000
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
Glendening, P. J. T. 1961. Teach Yourself Icelandic. London: English Universities Press. TD: Jónsson, Snoebjörn. 1966. A Primer of Modern Icelandic. London: Oxford Univ Press.
OTHERSOURC:
Haugen, Einar. 1958. "The Phonemes of Modern Icelandic," Lg 34, 55-88. Malone, Kemp. 1970. "The Phonemes of Modern Icelandic," in Studies in Honor of Albert Morey Sturtevant, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 5-21. AL 7:8
CONSONANTS:
p ph t th k kh f θ s h v ð m n ŋ l r
STOPS:p ph t th k kh
FRICATIVES:f v θ ð s h
NASALS:m n ŋ
LATERALS:l
VIBRANTS:r
MODIFIEDCO:c̄
GLIDES:j
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:i I Y ø ɛ
CENTRALVOW:a
BACKVOWELS:u ɔ
LONGVOWELS:v̄ all
DIPHTHONGS:ui ei oi ou ai øi au
STRESS:initial
NOUNNUMBER:s p
GENDER:m f n
DEMONSTRAT:2
ARTICLES:def
PRONOUNS:
1 4d 4 2 5d 5 3mfn 6mfn politeness: 2 forms of 2: (1) intim [2 pol=5] (2) pol
SYNTAX:SVO AN GN/NG DN NUM-N N-POSS
PREPPOST:PREP
NUMBER:1860
LANGUAGE:Faroese
LOCATION:Netherlands (Faroe Islands)
POPULATION:40,000
CLASSIFICA:Indo-Hittite: Indo-European: Germanic: North
DICTIONARY:Svabo, J. C. 1966, 1970. Dictionarium Færoense. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
GRAMMAR:Lockwood, W. G. 1955. An Introduction to Modern Faroese. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
CONSONANTS:
ph t̪h kh b d̪ ɡ č ɡ̌ f s ṣ š h v m n̪ ñ ŋ l̪ ʎ r
STOPS:ph b t̪h d̪ kh ɡ
AFFRICATES:č ɡ̌
FRICATIVES:f v s ṣ š h
NASALS:m n̪ ñ ŋ
LATERALS:l̪ ʎ
VIBRANTS:r
MODIFIEDCO:c̄ p b t d k ɡ f s m n l r
GLIDES:j w
VOWELS:
FRONTVOWEL:I Y ɛ œ
CENTRALVOW:a
BACKVOWELS:ʋ ɔ
LONGVOWELS:ī ē ↔ō ā ū ō
DIPHTHONGS:ɛa ɔa ʋY ɔu ʉu ai ɛi ɔi
STRESS:initial
NOUNNUMBER:s p
GENDER:m f n
DEMONSTRAT:2
ARTICLES:def indef
PRONOUNS:
1 4 2 5 3mfn 6mfn politeness: 2 forms of 2: 2 intim/2 pol