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\data\typol\typology
Number: 1
Language: Hadza
Location: N Tanzania (Kondoa)
Population: 1,000
Classification: Khoisan
TextBooks: Bleek, D. F. 1931. "The Hadzapi or Watindega of Tanganyika Territory," Africa 4, ??
Other Sources:

   Sands, Bonny, Ian Maddieson and Peter Ladefoged. 1996. "The Phonetic Structures of Hadza," Studies in African Linguistics 25: 171-?.
Sands, Bonny. 1998. Eastern and Southern African Khoisan. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.
Tucker, A. N., M. A. Bryan and James Woodburn. 1977. "The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison," in Zur Sprachgeschicte und Ethnohistorie in Africa, ed. by W. Möhlig, F. Rottland and B. Heine, Berlin, Dietrich Reimer, 300-22.

Consonant system:

   p ph (pʔ) mph t th nth k kh kʔ ŋkh kʷ khʷ kʔʷ ʔ
b mb d nd ɡ ŋɡ ɡʷ
    ts t nts tl t č čʔ
    dz ndz ɡ̌ ɡ̌
f s š ɦ
m n ñ ŋ ŋʷ
    l ɬ

Stops: p ph (pʔ) mph b mb t th nth d nd k kh kʔ ŋkh ɡ ŋɡ kʷ khʷ kʔʷ ɡʷ ʔ
Affricates: ts t nts dz ndz tl t č čʔ ɡ̌ ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s š ɦ
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ ŋʷ
Laterals: l ɬ
Clicks:

   (ʘʔ)
/ /ʔ /h n/ n̥/
|| ||ʔ ||h n|| n̥||
! !ʔ !h n! n̥!
Woodburn describes (ʘʔ) as "archaic, very rare and replaceable by /."

Glides: j w
Vowel system:

   i u
e o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: ē ō
Syllable: (C)V
Tones: hi mid lo fall ris
Noun Number: s p
Gender: m f
Pronouns:

   1 4mfc
2mfc 5mf
3mf 6mf
c=common

Syntax: VSO
Number: 2
Language: Sandawe
Location: N Tanzania (Kondoa)
Population: 40,000
Classification: Khoisan
Other Sources:

   Dempwolff, Otto. 1916. Die Sandawe, linguistisches und ethnographisches Material aus Deutsch-Ostafrika. Hamburg.
Tucker, A. N., M. A. Bryan and James Woodburn. 1977. "The East African Click Languages: A Phonetic Comparison," in Zur Sprachgeschicte und Ethnohistorie in Africa, ed. by W. Möhlig, F. Rottland and B. Heine, Berlin, Dietrich Reimer, 300-22.
Kagaya, Ryohei. 1993. A Classified Vocabulary of the Sandawe Language. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.
Sands, Bonny. 1998. Eastern and Southern African Khoisan. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.

Consonant system:

   p ph t̪ t̪h k kh kʔ ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
    t tl t č čh
    dl ɡ̌
f s̪ x h
m n̪ ŋ
    l ɬ
    r

Stops: p ph b t̪ t̪h d̪ k kh kʔ ɡ ʔ
Affricates: tsʔ tl tlʔ dl č čh ɡ̌
Fricatives: f s̪ x h
Nasals: m n̪ ŋ
Laterals: l ɬ
Vibrants: r
Clicks:

   / /h /ʔ n/ ɡ/
|| ||h ||ʔ n|| ɡ||
! !h !ʔ n! ɡ!

Glides: j w
Vowel system:

   i u
e o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: v̄̃ all
Modified Vowels: i̥ u̥
Syllable: (C)V(C) [no VC]
Tones: hi lo ris fall
Stress: usually root initial
Noun Number: s p
Gender: m f n
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:

   1 4
2 5
3mf 6

Syntax: SOV NA GN DN POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 3
Language: Qxû
Alternate Name: !Kung
Location: NE Namibia
Population: 30,000
Classification: Khoisan: Northern
Grammar:

   Snyman, J. W. and ||Wãnasi /X'aeše. 1969. !Xʋ̃. Namibia: Admistration of South West Africa.
Snyman, J. W. 1970. An Introduction to the !Xũ (!Kung) Language. Cape Town: A. A. Balkema.

Consonant system:

   p ph pʔ t th tʔ k kh kʔ
b d ɡ
    ts tsh tsx t tx t č čh čx k
d dɣ ɡɣ
    s š x ɦ
β z ž
m mʔ n ŋ
    ɾ̣

Stops: p ph pʔ b t th tʔ d k kh kʔ ɡ
Affricates: ts tsh tsx t d tx t dɣ č čh čx ɡɣ k
Fricatives: β s z š ž x ɦ
Nasals: m mʔ n ŋ
Vibrants: ɾ̣
Clicks:

    / /h /ʔ /ʔh ɡ/ ɡ/x ɡ/k ɡ/ʔh /x / n/ n̥/h n/ʔh
ǂ ǂh ǂʔ ǂʔh ɡǂ ǂx ɡǂk ɡǂʔh ǂx ǂ nǂ n̥ǂh ʔh
|| ||h ||ʔ ||ʔh ɡ|| ɡ||x ɡ||k ɡ||ʔh ||x || n|| n̥||h n||ʔh
! !h !ʔ !ʔh ɡ! ɡ!x ɡ!k ɡ!ʔh !x ! n! n̥!h n!ʔh

Glides: j w
Vowel system:

   i u
e o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all but e
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all but e (v̄̃)
Modified Vowels:

   v̰ æ ɔ
v̰̄ æ ɔ
ṽ̰ æ ɔ
(ṽ̰̄)
(v̰ are 'pressed' vowels produced with pharyngeal friction.)

Diphthongs: diphthongs
Tones: hi-lev mid-lev lo-lev ris fall
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:

   1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3mfn 6dmfn 6mfn

Syntax: SVO NA
Number: 4
Language: Qxû
Alternate Name: !Kung
Dialect: Dz̪u/'oãsi
Location: NE Namibia
Population: 30,000 (400)
Classification: Khoisan: Northern
TextBooks: Maingard, L. F. 1958. "Three Bushman Languages," African Studies 16: 37-71 & 17: 100-15.
Other Sources: NBL
Consonant system:

    t k kh ʔ
b d ɡ
    t čʔ k
d
β s š x h
    z ž
m n ñ ŋ
    ɾ̣

Stops: b t d k kh ɡ ʔ
Affricates: t d čʔ k
Fricatives: β s z š ž x h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Vibrants: ɾ̣
Clicks:

   / /h /ʔ ɡ/ /x / n/
ǂ ǂh ǂʔ ɡǂ ǂx ǂ
|| ||h ||ʔ ɡ|| ||x || n||
! !h !ʔ ɡ! !x ! n!

Glides: j w
Vowel system:

   i u
e o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels:
Nasal Vowels:
Tones: tones
Pronouns:

   1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3 6d 6

Syntax: SVO
Number: 5
Language: Qxû
Alternate Name: !Kung
Dialect: Ju/'hoan
Location: NE Namibia
Population: 30,000
Classification: Khoisan: Northern
Dictionary: Dickens, Patrick. 1994. English-Ju/'hoan Ju/'hoan-English Dictionary. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
Consonant system:

   p ph bph t th tx t dth k kh kxʔ ɡkh ʔ
b d ɡ
    ts tsh tsx dtsh dt č čh čx čʔ dčʔ ɟčʔ ɟčh
f s š x
v z dzx ž džh džx ɦ
m n
    l
    r

Stops: p ph b bph t th tx t dth d k kh kxʔ ɡkh ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts tsh tsx dtsh dt č čh čx čʔ dčʔ ɟčʔ ɟčh
Fricatives: f v s z dzx š ž džh džx x ɦ
Nasals: m n
Laterals: l
Vibrants: r
Clicks:

   / /h /x ɡ/ ɡ/x ɡ/k / n/ n̥/h /ʔ
ǂ ǂh ǂx ɡǂ ɡǂx ɡǂk ǂ nǂ n̥ǂh ǂʔ
! !h !x ɡ! ɡ!x ɡ!k ! n! n̥!h !ʔ
|| ||h ||x ɡ|| ɡ||x ɡ||k || n|| n̥||h ||ʔ

Glides: j w
Vowel system:

   i u
e o
   a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all
Nasal Vowels: ṽ all
Modified Vowels:

   v̤ (breathy) all
v̰ (creaky) all
ṽ̤ all
ṽ̰ all

Syllable:
Tones: (very-hi) hi lo very-lo
Noun Classes: 5
Syntax: SVO
Number: 6
Language: Qxû
Alternate Name: !Kung
Dialect: Dikundu
Location: NE Namibia
Population: 30,000
Classification: Khoisan: Northern
Grammar: Köhler, Oswin. 1981. "Les langues khoisan," in Les langues dans le monde ancien et moderne, ed. by Jean Perrot, Paris, Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 455-615.
Consonant system:

   p ph pɦ t th tɦ tx t k kh ʔ
b d ɡ
    ts tsh ttsx tč čh čx čʔ k
    dz d
    s sh š šh x h
β z zɦ ž žɦ ɦ
m mɦ mɒ ʔm mb n nɦ ñ ŋ ʔŋ
    ṛ

Stops: p ph pɦ b t th tɦ tx t d k kh ɡ ʔ
Affricates: ts tsh ttsx t dz dč čh čx čʔ k
Fricatives: β s sh z zɦ š šh ž žɦ x h ɦ
Nasals: m mɦ mɒ ʔm mb n nɦ ñ ŋ ʔŋ
Vibrants:
Clicks:

   / /ʔ /ɦ /h /x / ɡ/ n/ɦ ɡ/n
ǂ ǂʔ ǂɦ ǂh ǂx ǂ ɡǂ nǂɦ ɡǂn
! !ʔ !ɦ !h !x ! ɡ! n!ɦ ɡ!n
|| ||ʔ ||ɦ ||h ||x || ɡ|| n||ɦ ɡ||n

Glides: j w
Vowel system:

   i u
e o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ã ũ
Modified Vowels:

   ḭ ḛ a̰ ṵ o̰
i̤ a̤ ṳ o̤
aɒ oɒ
ɒɒ
ã̰ õ̰

Diphthongs:

   ia ei au ao ai ae oi oe oa ui ua
ḛḭ a̰ṵ a̰o̰ a̰ḛ o̰ḛ o̰a̰ ṵḭ
aoɒ aeɒ oiɒ
ãũ ãı̃ õã ũã ũı̃
ã̰ṵ̃ ã̰ı̰̃ õ̰ã̰
ãũɒ ãı̃ɒ õı̃ɒ

Syllable: (C)V(N)
Tones: hi mid lo lo-ris mid-ris mid-fall
Noun Number: s p
Noun Classes: 4
Demonstratives: 2
Pronouns:

   1 4die 4mie 4fie 4cie
2 5d 5mfc
3 6dmfc 6mfc

Syntax: SVO NA GN(inalienable)/NG(alienable) ND POSS-N(inalienable)/N-POSS(alienable)
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 7
Language: ǂAu.||eı̂
Alternate Name: Auen
Location: Namibia
Population: 5,000
Classification: Khoisan: Northern
Other Sources: NBL
Consonant system:

   




Pronouns:

   1 4d 4
2 5d 5
3fc 6dfc 6fc
c=common

Syntax: SVO
Number: 8
Language: Maligo
Location: South Angola
Classification: Khoisan: Northern
Consonant system:

   




Syntax: SVO
Number: 9
Language: Ekoka
Location: Namibia
Population: 5,000
Classification: Khoisan: Northern
Consonant system:

   




Syntax: SVO
Number: 10
Language: Proto-Central Khoisan
Location: Southern Africa
Classification: Khoisan: Central
Other Sources: Baucom, Kenneth L. 1974. "Proto-Central Khoisan," in Third Annual Conference on African Linguistics, ed. by E. Voeltz, Bloomington, Indiana University Publications, pp. 3-37.
Consonant system:

   p t th k kh
b d ɡ
    ts
dz
    s x h
m n
    r

Stops: p b t th d k kh ɡ
Affricates: ts dz
Fricatives: s x h
Nasals: m n
Vibrants: r
Clicks:

   / /ʔ /x /h /k n/
! !ʔ !x !k n!
+ +ʔ +x +k n+
|| ||ʔ ||x ||k n||
ǂ ǂʔ ǂx ǂk
+ is a front lateral click; || is a back lateral click. According to Baucom, "it should be noted that the distinction between front lateral and back lateral clicks does not occur in any modern Central languae. But the evidence demands a fifth click position in the proto-language. The Southern languages have a fifth labial position, and a few of the Northern languages appear to have the front lateral/back lateral contrast given here. The choice of a front lateral position over a labial position is somewhat arbitrary. It might well be that the empty front lateral with pharyngeal release will prove to be filled by the aspirated dental click." (pp. 4-5) There is no IPA symbol for a front lateral click.

Modified Consonants: cɒ t d h kx m
Vowel system:

   i u
e o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Long Vowels: v̄ all ṽ all
Syntax: SOV
Number: 11
Language: Nama
Alternate Name: Khoekhoe
Location: South Africa
Population: 234,000
Classification: Khoisan: Central: Nama
Grammar: Hagman, R. 1977. Nama Hottentot Grammar. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.
Other Sources:

   Beach, D. M. 1938. The Phonetics of Hottentot Language. Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons.
DKS

Consonant system:

   p t̪ (c) k ʔ
    t̪sh kxh
(f) s x h
(v)
m n̪
    (l)
    r

Stops: p t̪ (c) k ʔ
Affricates: sh kxh
Fricatives: (f) (v) s x h
Nasals: m n̪
Laterals: (l)
Vibrants: r
Clicks:

   / /h /ʔ /x n/
ǂ ǂh ǂʔ ǂx
! !h !ʔ !x n!
|| ||h ||ʔ ||x n||

Vowel system:

   i u
e (ǝ) o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ã ũ
Diphthongs:

   ai ae ao au oe oa ui
ãı̃ ãũ õã ũı̃

Syllable: (C)V(C) Nˈ
Tones: hi-ris hi-fall mid-ris mid-fall lo-mid-lev lo-ris
Pronouns:

   1 4dmie 4dfie 4dcie 4mie 4fie 4cie
2mf 5dmfc 5mfc
3mfc 6dmfc 6mfc
c=common

Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 12
Language: Dama
Alternate Name: Damara
Location: Namibia
Population: 105,000
Classification: Khoisan: Central: Nama
Consonant system:

   




Syntax: SOV
Number: 13
Language: !Ora
Alternate Name: Korana
Location: S South Africa
Population: extinct
Classification: Khoisan: Central: Nama
Grammar: Maingard, L. F. 1962. Korana Folktales. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand Univ. Press.
TextBooks: Beach, D. M. 1938. The Phonetics of the Hottentot Language. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons.
Other Sources: DKS
Consonant system:

   p t̪ t̪h k kh ʔ
b d̪ ɡ
    (t) k
    s x h
m n̪
    ɾ

Stops: p b t̪ t̪h d̪ k kh ɡ ʔ
Affricates: (t) k
Fricatives: s x h
Nasals: m n̪
Vibrants: ɾ
Clicks:

   / /h /ʔ /x n/
ǂ ǂh ǂʔ ǂx
! !h !ʔ !x n!
|| ||h ||ʔ ||x n||

Glides: j w
Vowel system:

   i u
e (ǝ) o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: (ǝ) a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: Ĩ ã ʋ̃ õ
Diphthongs: ai ei au oa ou oe ue
Syllable: (C)V(C) Nˈ
Tones: hi-lev hi-ris mid-lev lo-mid-fall
Noun Number: s d p
Gender: m f c (common)
Demonstratives: 3
Pronouns:

   1mf 4dmie 4dfie 4dcie 4mie 4fie 4cie
2mf 5dmfc 5mfc
3mfc 6dmfc 6mfc

Syntax: SOV AN GN DN NUM-N POSS-N D-Num+A+N
Prep/Post: POST
Number: 14
Language: Xiri
Location: South Africa
Population: extinct
Classification: Khoisan: Central: Nama
Consonant system:

   




Syntax: SOV
Number: 15
Language: Hai.n||um
Location: Namibia
Population: 16,000
Classification: Khoisan: Central: Hai.n||um
Consonant system:

   




Syntax: SOV
Number: 16
Language: Kwadi
Location: South Angola
Population: 15,000
Classification: Khoisan: Central: Kwadi
Consonant system:

   




Syntax: SOV
Number: 17
Language: G||abake
Dialect: Kua
Location: EC Botswana
Population: 9,360
Classification: cKhoisan: Central: Tshu-Khwe: Northeast
Grammar: DKS
Other Sources:

   CTIL 7, 404.
CBH

Consonant system:

   p t th tʔ tx c ch cʔ cx k kh kʔ kj q ʔ
b d dj ɟ ɡ ŋɡ
    ts tsh t tsx
    dz
    s x h
m n ñ ŋ

Stops: p b t th tʔ tx d dj c ch cʔ cx ɟ k kh kʔ kj ɡ ŋɡ q ʔ
Affricates: ts tsh t tsx dz
Fricatives: s x h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Clicks:

   / ɡ/ n/ ɡ/n /x ɡ/x /h /ʔ n/x
ǂ ɡǂ ǂh
! n! !x !h !ʔ
|| ɡ|| n|| ɡ||n ||x ɡ||x ||h ||ʔ n||x
[n/x is prenasalized]

Glides: j ʔj w
Vowel system:

   i u
e o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ã ũ
Diphthongs:

   ai ae ao au oi oe oa ui ue ua
ãı̃ãũ õã ũı̃

Tones: hi-lev lo-lev hi-fall lo-ris
Pronouns:

   1 4dmfc 4mfc
2mf 5dmfc 5mfc
3mfc 6dmfc 6mfc

Syntax: SOV
Number: 18
Language: G||abake
Dialect: Tsua
Location: EC Botswana
Population: 9,360
Classification: Khoisan: Central: Tshu-Khwe: Northeast
Grammar: DKS
Other Sources:

   CTIL 7, 404.
CBH

Consonant system:

   p t th tʔ tx c cʔ cx k kh kʔ kj q ʔ
b d dj ɟ ɡ
    ts tsh t tsx
    dz
    s x h
m n ñ ŋ

Stops: p b t th tʔ tx d dj c ch cʔ cx ɟ k kh kʔ kj ɡ ŋɡ q ʔ
Affricates: ts tsh t tsx dz
Fricatives: s x h
Nasals: m n ñ ŋ
Clicks:

   / ɡ/ ɡ/n q/ /x ɡ/x /h /ʔ
ǂ ǂx ǂh
! !x !h !ʔ
|| ɡ|| n|| ɡ||n ||x ɡ||x ||h ||ʔ

Glides: j ʔj w
Vowel system:

   i u
e o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ã ũ
Diphthongs:

   ai ae ao au oi oe oa ui ue ua
ãı̃ãũ õã ũı̃

Tones: hi-lev lo-lev hi-fall lo-ris
Pronouns:

   1 4dmfc 4mfc
2mf 5dmfc 5mfc
3mf 6dmfc 6mfc

Syntax: SOV
Number: 19
Language: G||abake
Dialect: Cua
Location: EC Botswana
Population: 9,360
Classification: Khoisan: Central: Tshu-Khwe: Northeast
Grammar: DKS
Other Sources:

   CTIL 7, 404.
CBH

Consonant system:

    t c ch cʔ cx k kh kʔ
b d ɡ
    ts t tsx
    s h
    z
m n nj ŋ
    r

Stops: b t d c ch cʔ cx k kh kʔ ɡ
Affricates: ts t tsx
Fricatives: s z h
Nasals: m n nj ŋ
Vibrants: r
Clicks:

   / ɡ/ /x /ʔ
|| ||x ||ʔ

Glides: j
Vowel system:

   i u
e o
    a

Front Vowels: i e
Central Vowels: a
Back Vowels: u o
Nasal Vowels: ı̃ ã ũ
Diphthongs:

   ai ao au oe ui
õã ũı̃

Tones: hi-lev lo-lev hi-fall lo-ris
Pronouns:

   1 4dmfc 4mfc
2mf 5dmfc 5mfc
3mf 6dmfc 6mfc

Syntax: SOV
Number: 20
Language: Kwee
Location: South Africa
Classification: Khoisan: Central: Tshu-Khwe: Northeast
Consonant system:

   




Syntax: SOV
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on,typology-population,typology-classifica,typology-consonants,typology-syntax,typology-language,typology-location,typology-population,typology-classifica,typology-consonants,typology-syntax,typology-language,typology-dialect,typology-location,typology-population,typology-classifica,typology-grammar,typology-othersourc,typology-consonants,typology-stops,typology-affricates,typology-fricatives,typology-nasals,typology-clicks,typology-glides,typology-vowels,typology-frontvowel,typology-centralvow,typology-backvowels,typology-nasalvowel,typology-diphthongs,typology-tones,typology-pronouns,typology-syntax,typology-language,typology-dialect,typology-location,typology-population,typology-classifica,typology-grammar,typology-othersourc,typology-consonants,typology-stops,typology-affricates,typology-fricatives,typology-nasals,typology-clicks,typology-glides,typology-vowels,typology-frontvowel,typology-centralvow,typology-backvowels,typology-nasalvowel,typology-diphthongs,typology-tones,typology-pronouns,typology-syntax,typology-language,typology-dialect,typology-location,typology-population,typology-classifica,typology-grammar,typology-othersourc,typology-consonants,typology-stops,typology-affricates,typology-fricatives,typology-nasals,typology-vibrants,typology-clicks,typology-glides,typology-vowels,typology-frontvowel,typology-centralvow,typology-backvowels,typology-nasalvowel,typology-diphthongs,typology-tones,typology-pronouns,typology-syntax,typology-language,typology-location,typology-classifica,typology-consonants,typology-syntax,
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