Some examples are: {Da mi, optuma femina, manum} "Best of women, give me your hand" [Aul. 135]; {is nunc ducentos nummos Philippos militi, quos dare se promisit, dabit} "He now will give the two hundred Philippean pieces to the Captain, which he has promised that he will give" [Bac. 969-970].
Late Classical Latin:dˈa-rɛ {dare}1
An example is: {dedi quidem potionem} "I gave him the poison" [Met. 10: 9].
Some examples are: {el majèstr̥ niderkúrn toče dai̯ ge dúa uṅ miṡúl de veṅ} "Mister Niederkorn gave them a glass of wine every day"; {ju te dú joi̯na pu̯art} "I will give you a part of it" [Bartoli 2002: 242].
Cf. some examples: {era una biscia, // forse qual diede ad Eva il cibo amaro} "a serpent was; perchance // the same which gave to Eve the bitter food" [Purg. 8]; {lume v'è dato a bene e a malizia} "light has been given you for good and evil" [Purg. 16].
Coupier 1995: 433-434. Coupier mentions the term bay-ˈa {baia} as a synonym, but dun-ˈa {douna} prevails in the examples that are provided in the dictionary.
Cf. some examples: {mi vir, lanam, unde tibi pallium malacum et calidum conficiatur tunicaeque hibernae bonae, ne algeas hac hieme'} "Buy me some wool, my dear, with which a soft and warm cloak may be made, and good winter under-clothes, that you mayn't catch cold this winter-weather" [Mil. 687-689]; {specimen specitur, nunc certamen cernitur, sisne necne ut esse oportet, malus, bonus quoivis modi} "whether you are or are not such as you ought to be; good or bad, of whichever kind" [Bac. 399-400]; {bonus sit bonis, malus sit malis} "Good with the good let him be, bad with the bad" [Bac. 660].
Comparative form: mˈɛl-ɪɔr {melior} ({uter ibi melior bellator erit inventus cantharo, tuest legio adiudicato, cum utro hanc noctem sies} "Him shall you choose that shall be found there the better warrior with the goblet" [Men. 187-188]). Superlative form: ˈɔpt-ʉm-ʊs {optumus}: {Da mi, optuma femina, manum} "Best of women, give me your hand" [Aul. 135]; {calidum hercle esse audivi optimum mendacium} "I' faith, I've heard say that a lie piping-hot is the best lie" [Most. 665].
Late Classical Latin:bˈɔn-ʊs {bonus}1
Some examples are: {"At hic bonus" inquit "consiliator Aristomenes"} "And this is his good counselor Aristomenes" [Met. 1: 12]; {per dexteram Martis per fidem sacramenti bonum commilitonem cruciatu simul et captivitate liberaremus} ""By the right hand of Mars," he cried, "and you loyalty to our oath, free a good comrade from capture and torture both" [Met. 4: 11].
DER 2004: 419; Bolocan et al. 1985: 1621-1622; Gancz 2015. Moldavian: bun {bun} 'good' [Podiko 1973: 1016; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 482].
Dalmatian:buŋ {buṅ}1
Some examples are: {deṡmúṅ lo tastúrme el véṅ se-l fero buṅ} "Tomorrow we will taste if the wine is good" [Bartoli 2002: 242]; {kosti persigu͡ọti noṅ fero fu̯at, matu͡ọr, non fero buni jamo} "these peaches are not mature, they are not good yet" [Bartoli 2002: 239].
Davico 2016. Alternately, the term brav {brav} is applied to persons, cf. the following examples: {Ti tses un-a brava person-a, chiel l'è un-a person-a grama} "You are a good man, he is a bad man".
Some examples are: {la buona compagnia che l'uom francheggia} "that good companion which emboldens man" [Inf. 28]; {ancora era quel popol di lontano, // i' dico dopo i nostri mille passi, // quanto un buon gittator trarria con mano} "still was that people as far off from us, // after a thousand steps of ours I say, // as a good thrower with his hand would reach" [Purg. 3].
The only example is {ut viridis exoritur colos ex temporibus atque fronte} "How a green colour is arising on his temples and his forehead" [Men. 829-830]. Distinct from hˈɛrb-ɛ-ʊs {herbeus} 'grass-green': {Quis hic est homo cum collativo ventre atque oculis herbeis?} "Who is this fellow with extended paunch, and eyes as green as grass?" [Curc. 230-231].
Late Classical Latin:vˈɪr-ɪd-ɪs {viridis}1
Cf. some examples: {Sed inde de fluvio musicae suavis nutricula leni crepitu dulcis aurae divinitus inspirata sic vaticinatur harundo viridis} "But a green reed, that piper of sweet music, stirred by the touch of a gentle breeze" [Met. 6: 12]; {sed color psittaco viridis et intimis plumulis et extimis palmulis, nisi quod sola cervice distinguitur} "The parrot is green from the roots of its feathers to their very tips, save only for the markings on the neck" [Florida 12]. The term {virens}, derived from the same root, can be used as well: {et de ore pastoricii canis virens exsiluit ranula} "a bright green frog leapt from a sheep-dog's mouth" [Met. 9: 34].
Megleno Romanian:vˈe̯ard-i {veárdi}1
Capidan 1935: 324.
Istro Romanian:zelˈen {zelén}-1
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 304. Borrowed from Croatian. The inherited term for 'green' vˈärd-e {vę́rde} is preserved in the meaning 'unripe' and in the term for an evergreen tree {vę́rdele spir} [Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 297; Byhan 1899: 380]. Cf. {vęrdu nåp} 'raw turnip'.
Atteted in Cubich's vocabulary [Bartoli 2002: 269]. Some examples are: {pletu̯ást la butúa la koláu̯r vi̯árd} "rather tends to be of green colour" [Bartoli 2002: 240]; {col cóplo viard in tiásta} "with a green hat on her head" [Bartoli 2002: 299-300]. The form vyard {vi̯árd} is a "dalmatianized" borrowing from Venetian.
Cf. some examples: {Non fronda verde, ma di color fosco} "Not foliage green, but of a dusky colour" [Inf. 13]; {Verdi come fogliette pur mo nate // erano in veste} "Green as the little leaflets just now born // their garments were" [Purg. 8].
Some examples are: {sed quis hic est qui me capillo hinc de curru deripit} "But what person is this that is tearing me hence by the hair down from the chariot?" [Men. 870]; {me istanc capillo protracturum esse in viam } "I'll drag this woman by the hair into the street" [Merc. 798]; {PHILEM. Suo quique loco (viden?) capillus satis compositust commode. SC. Vbi tu commoda es, capillum commodum esse credito} "PHILEM. Will you see that each hair is nicely arranged in its own place? SC. When you yourself are so nice, do believe that your hair must be nice" [Most. 254-255]; {capillum promittam optimumst occipiamque hariolari} "It were better I should let my hair grow, and set up for a soothsayer" [Rud. 377].
Distinct from krˈiːn-ɪs {crinis} 'lock of hair', cf. {Vt ad te eam iam deducas itaque eam huc ornatam adducas, ex matronarum modo, capite compto, crinis vittasque habeat} " For you to bring her home at once to your house as your wife, and, for that reason, to bring her there dressed out, so that she may wear her locks with her hair arranged, and fillets after the fashion of matrons" [Mil. 790-792]; {soli gerundum censeo morem et capiundas crines} "I think that you ought to devote yourself to him alone, and assume the character of a wife" [Most. 226] ({crines capere} "to plait one's hair" = "to get married" [OLD 1968: 459]). The term pˈɪɫ-ʊs {pilus} 'hair' is not attested' in Plautus' texts.
Late Classical Latin:kˈapɪɫː-ʊs {capillus}1
Head hair, cf. some examples: {Ipse denique dux et signifer ceterorum validis me viribus adgressus ilico manibus ambabus capillo adreptum ac retro reflexum effligere lapide gestit} "Their general and standard-bearer made for me at once, grasped my hair with both hands, bent me backwards, and was about to finish me off with a stone" [Met. 3: 6]; {Sic illos capillos in mutuos nexus obditos atque nodatos cum multis odoribus dat vivis carbonibus adolendos} "Then she bound the hairs together and knotted them into braids, and threw them onto the live coals with several kinds of incense" [Met. 3: 18]; {quamvis auro veste gemmis omnique cetero mundo exornata mulier incedat, tamen, nisi capillum distinxerit, ornata non possit audire} "such is the glory of a woman's hair that though she adorns herself with garments, gold and gems and other finery, unless her hair is groomed she cannot be called well-dressed" [Met. 2: 9]. Distinct from pˈɪɫ-ʊs {pilus} 'body hair / animal hair': {plane pili mei crassantur in setas} "Instead the hair on my body turned to bristles" [Met. 3: 24]; {pilum liberali nitore nutriverat} "my coat polished to a noble sheen" [Met. 10: 15]; {Ac primo quidem squalens pilus defluit} "First the coarse hair fell from my body" [Met. 11: 13].
Megleno Romanian:per {per}2
Capidan 1935: 219. A generic term applicable to human head hair and body hair.
Istro Romanian:per {per}2
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 248; Byhan 1899: 305. A generic term applicable to human head hair and body hair.
Aromanian:pˈer-ŭ {per}2
Papahagi 1963: 837; Cunia 2010: 814-815; Dalametra 1906: 165; Bara et al. 2005: 336; Goɫąb 1984: 242. A generic term, applicable to human head hair and body hair.
Romanian:pǝr {păr}2
DER 2004: 436; Bolocan et al. 1985: 161; Gancz 2015. A generic term, applicable to human head hair and body hair [DEaLR 2015]. The term pǝr is a collective noun; one hair is designated by the expression fir de=pˈǝr {fir de păr}, literally 'a thread of hair'. Moldavian: pǝr {păr} 'hair' [Podiko 1973: 86; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 48].
Dalmatian:kapˈe-y {kapéi̯}1
Along with the inherited term {kapéi̯} 'hair', speakers also used the Venetian borrowing {kavi̯úi} 'hair', cf. the context {ju me maṅkúa toč, nel mi kúp, toč i kavi̯úi. i ge ǧu kaskuót i kupli} "I have lost all my hair from my head. The hair fell away" [Bartoli 2002: 241]. Also attested by Cubich as {capei} 'hair' [Bartoli 2002: 267] and in the context {int-el kúp lu portúa iṅ kola kál, de zùpra i kapéi̯ - in taľáṅ ṡe i kavéi̯. le portúa doi̯ jág de arjánt} "at the time, on their heads they were wearing, in their hair – i kavéi̯ in Italian – they were wearing two silver needles" [Bartoli 2002: 232] (actually, i kavéi̯ is a Venetian form, not Italian). Distinct from payl {pail} 'body hair', attested in Cubich's vocabulary [Bartoli 2002: 273].
Friulian:ȶavˈɛ-y {cjavei}1
Decorte 2015; Virili 2015; Pirona 1871: 660, 117. Plural form. A singular hair is ȶavˈɛl-i {cjaveli}. Distinct from peːl {pêl} 'a body hair' [Virili 2015; Pirona 1871: 292].
Along with kapˈelː-o {capello}, which usually means 'head hair' in modern language, Dante can use the term pˈel-o {pelo} in this meaning (in modern Italian {pelo} is restricted to the designation of body hair). Since it is impossible to differentiate between these synonyms, we have included both of them on the list. Examples on kapˈelː-o {capello}: {già t'ho veduto coi capelli asciutti} "I have already seen thee with dry hair" [Inf. 19]; {Io avea già i capelli in mano avvolti} "I had his hair in hand already twisted" [Inf. 32].
Cardona 2015. Distinct from pɛɫ {pel} ˈbody hairˈ [Cardona 2015].
Castelló de la Plana Catalan:kaβˈeʎ {cabell}1
Barreda 2015. Distinct from pɛɫ {pèl} ˈbody hairˈ [Barreda 2015].
Valencia Catalan:kaβˈeʎ {cabell}-1
Pérez i Sanchis 2015. Distinct from pɛɫ {pèl} ˈbody hairˈ [Pérez i Sanchis]. Borrowed from the Standard Catalan [Pedrós 2015].
Manises Catalan:mˈoɲ-o {monyo}3
Pedrós 2015. Distinct from pɛɫ {pel}, which is used in refering to a single hair of the body or the head [Pedrós 2015].
Castilian Spanish:pˈel-o {pelo}2
Valén 2015. There is also the term kaβˈeʎ-os {cabellos} (plural) 'hair', which is less frequent. Distinct from bˈeʎ-o {vello} 'body hair' [Valén 2015].
Voinova et al. 1989: 75. Distinct from pˈel-u {pelo} ({pêlo} in old orthography) 'body hair' [Voinova et al. 1989: 75].
Galician:kaβˈel-o {cabelo}1
Montoya Bolaños 2015; Franco Grande 1968: 194; Fernández Armesto 1981: 571; Carré Alvarellos 1972: 1002, 209. Singular form. There are two terms for 'hair' in Galician: kaβˈel-o {cabelo} 'head hair' and pˈel-o {pelo} 'head hair / body hair'. Since both can be applied to 'head hair': {Ten o pelo longo} and {Ten o cabelo longo} "He's got long hair" [Montoya Bolaños 2016], we include both terms in the list.
Provençal Occitan:pɛw {péu}2
Coupier 1995: 236, 1071. Generic term for both head and body hair. Distinct from the obsolete term kabˈɛw {cabèu} 'hair' and from the Gallicism čev-ˈü {chevu} ~ čiv-ˈü {chivu}, used in colloquial speech [Coupier 1995: 236].
Savoyard Franco-Provençal:ševˈöː {cheveû}-1
Viret 2013: 494-495. Borrowed from French {cheveu} 'hair'. Distinct from pay {pai} 'body hair' [Viret 2013: 1667-1668].
Old French:čǝvˈel {chevel}1
EDCT 2014: 193. The term krĩn {crin} 'hair / horse hair' is much less common; it is applied to denote human hair only 3 times [EDCT 2014: 271] (the term čǝvˈel {chevel} occurs 33 times). Distinct from poyl {poil} 'coat (of a horse)' [EDCT 2014: 861].
Some examples for the meaning 'head hair' are: {un vecchio, bianco per antico pelo} "an old man, hoary with the hair of eld" [Inf. 3]; {e quella fronte c'ha 'l pel così nero} "that forehead there which has the hair so black" [Inf. 12]; {e vidi due sì stretti, // che 'l pel del capo avieno insieme misto} "and saw two so close, // the hair upon their heads together mingled" [Inf. 32].
Cf. some examples: {Da mi, optuma femina, manum} "Best of women, give me your hand" [Aul. 135]; {signum esse oportet in manu laeva tibi, ludenti puero quod memordit simia} "there ought to be a mark upon your left hand, a bite which an ape gave you when a child" [Poen. 1073-1074]; {ipsusque Amphitruo regem Pterelam sua obtruncavit manu} "Amphitryon himself, with his own hand, struck off the head of Pterelas their king" [Amph. 252]; {quasi pueri qui nare discunt scirpea induitur ratis, qui laborent minus, facilius ut nent et moveant manus} "Just as a float of bulrushes is placed beneath boys who are learning to swim, by means of which they may labour less, so as to swim more easily and move their hands" [Aul. 595-596].
Distinct from brˈakː-ɪ-ũ {bracchium} ~ brˈak-ɪ-ũ {brachium} 'arm' of Greek origin, cf. {id conexum in umero laevo, exfafillato bracchio} "have it fastened over the left shoulder, your right arm projecting out" [Mil. 1180]; {circumda torquem brachiis, meum collum circumplecte} "enfold me in your arms, and embrace my neck" [Asin. 695-696].
Late Classical Latin:mˈan-ʊs {manus}1
Some examples are: {manus non iam pedes sunt, sed in erecta porriguntur officia} "my hands were no longer feet but reached out in a proper manner" [Met. 11:13]; {Cupidinis buccula manuque ad os suum relata consaviat atque sic ad illum} "Jupiter tweaked Cupid's cheek, raised the lad's hand to his lips, kissed it and replied" [Met. 6: 22]; {Sed privatus humana manu, privatus digitis, ungula rutunda atque mutila gladium stringere nequaquam poteram} "But without human hands and fingers, only misshapen hooves, I couldn't even draw a sword" [Met. 10: 29]; {Ipse denique dux et signifer ceterorum validis me viribus adgressus ilico manibus ambabus capillo adreptum ac retro reflexum effligere lapide gestit} "Their general and standard-bearer made for me at once, grasped my hair with both hands, bent me backwards, and was about to finish me off with a stone" [Met. 3: 6]. Distinct from brˈak-y-ũ {brachium} 'arm': {Iamque alternis conatibus libratis brachiis in avem similis gestiebam} "Then I spread out my arms and flapped them up and down one after the other, trying my best to become a bird" [Met. 3: 24].
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 227; Byhan 1899: 282. Polysemy: 'hand / arm'. The difference between 'hand' and 'arm' has apparently disappeared under the influence of the Croatian language. The old term for the arm - brac {braţ} - is preserved only in the expression {ân braţ} 'in the arms'. In some expressions the Croatism rˈuk-a {rúсa} 'hand' is used as well. Cf. {E tot na ruke, tot} "So, all by hand, everything".
Aromanian:mˈɨn-ǝ {mînă}1
Papahagi 1963: 694-695; Cunia 2010: 624-626; Dalametra 1906: 132; Bara et al. 2005: 336; Goɫąb 1984: 234. Distinct from brˈac-ŭ {braţŭ} 'arm' [Papahagi 1963: 217; Dalametra 1906: 42; Bara et al. 2005: 336; Goɫąb 1984: 208] and pˈalm-ǝ {pálmă} 'palm' [Papahagi 1963: 813; Dalametra 1906: 162; Bara et al. 2005: 336].
Romanian:mˈɨn-ǝ {mână}1
DER 2004: 440; Bolocan et al. 1985: 1299-1301; Gancz 2015. Distinct from brac {braţ} 'arm' [DEaLR 2015]. Moldavian: mˈɨn-ǝ {mână} 'hand' [Podiko 1973: 813-814; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 393].
Dalmatian:mwoŋ {mu͡ọn}1
Some examples are: {la mu͡ọn zu͡ọnka} "the left hand"; {al manái̯ka ko la muṅ sinístra perkó ke-l fero zankíṅ} "He eats with his left hand, because he is left-handed" [Bartoli 2002: 241]. Distinct from brac {braz} 'arm' [Bartoli 2002: 240].
Caneve 2015. Distinct from braθ {braz} 'arm' [Caneve 2015].
Old Italian:mˈan-o {mano}1
Cf. some examples: {ond' io li orecchi con le man copersi} "whereas mine ears I covered with my hands" [Inf. 29]; {ancora era quel popol di lontano, // i' dico dopo i nostri mille passi, // quanto un buon gittator trarria con mano} "still was that people as far off from us, // after a thousand steps of ours I say, // as a good thrower with his hand would reach" [Purg. 3]. Distinct from {braccio} 'arm': {Fersi le braccia due di quattro liste; // le cosce con le gambe e 'l ventre e 'l casso // divenner membra che non fuor mai viste} "Of the four lists were fashioned the two arms, // the thighs and legs, the belly and the chest // members became that never yet were seen" [Inf. 25].
Marcelli 2015. Distinct from brˈačː-o {braccio} 'arm' [Marcelli 2015].
Foligno Italian:mˈan-o {mano}-1
Monti Barnocchi-Moscati 2016. Probably influenced by Standard Italian {mano} 'hand'. Distinct from vrˈačː-u {vracciu} 'arm' [Monti Barnocchi-Moscati 2016].
Genitive form: kˈapɪt-ɪs {capitis}. Some examples are: {capiam coronam mi in caput} "I'll place a chaplet on my head" [Amph. 999]; {devolant angues iubati deorsum in impluvium duo maximi: continuo extollunt ambo capita} "two immense crested serpents glided down through the skylight; instantly they both reared their heads" [Amph. 1107-1109]; {abite et de via decedite, ne quem in cursu capite aut cubito aut pectore offendam aut genu} "get out of the way, lest I should hurt any person in my speed with my head, or elbow, or breast, or with my knee" [Curc. 281-282].
Late Classical Latin:kˈapʊt {caput}1
Cf. some examples: {et capite Socratis in alterum dimoto latus per iugulum sinistrum capulo tenus gladium totum ei demergit} "And with that she pushed Socrates' head to the side and buried her blade in the left of his neck all the way to the hilt" [Met. 1: 13]; {ipso etiam bestiae capite adusque confinium cervicis solido relicto} "and leave the head intact down to the neck" [Met. 4: 14]; {nisu quam valido noxii serpentis nodum cervicis et capitis abscide} "and with the firmest stroke you can muster sever the venomous serpent's head from his body" [Met. 5: 20]; {Ipse denique dux et signifer ceterorum validis me viribus adgressus ilico manibus ambabus capillo adreptum ac retro reflexum effligere lapide gestit} "Their general and standard-bearer made for me at once, grasped my hair with both hands, bent me backwards, and was about to finish me off with a stone" [Met. 3: 6].
The term tˈɛst-a {testa} is attested only in the meanings '(clay) receptacle / shell': {nudatus ipse delato numine scabiem vetustam cariosae testae occipit exsculpere} "he took off his shirt, lowered the lamp inside, and began to hack at the solid crust inside the ancient receptacle" [Met. 9: 7]; {Quin ergo dicitis me eadem opera pretio impenso per plurim[is]os piscatoris quaesisse de litore conchulam striatam, testam hebe[n]tem, calculum teretem} "Why do you not say that at the same time I commissioned large numbers of fishermen to secure for me at a price striped sea-shells, rough shells, smooth pebbles" [Apologia 35: 3].
Megleno Romanian:kap {cap}1
Capidan 1935: 58. Distinct from ˈkok-ǝ {cócă} which is glossed as 'cap (întrebuințat numai în înțeles fig.)' in [Capidan 1935: 75] without further specifications.
Istro Romanian:kɒp {cåp}1
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 196; Byhan 1899: 251. The Croatism glˈɒv-a {glåva} is used as a count term for cattle, as in {sto glåv de oi} "one hundred heads of sheep" [Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 214].
Aromanian:kˈap-ŭ {cap}1
Papahagi 1963: 244-245; Cunia 2010: 232-233; Dalametra 1906: 48; Bara et al. 2005: 334; Goɫąb 1984: 224.
Romanian:kap {cap}1
DER 2004: 448; Bolocan et al. 1985: 252-253; Gancz 2015. Moldavian: kap {cap} 'head' [Podiko 1973: 141-142; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 77].
Dalmatian:kup {kúp}1
Besides the inherited term kup {kúp}, there is also a Venetian borrowing tˈyasta {ti̯asta} 'head'. Both terms are used by Udina, sometimes in neighbouring sentences: {int-el kúp lu portúa iṅ kola kál, de zùpra i kapéi̯ - in taľáṅ ṡe i kavéi̯. le portúa doi̯ jág de arjánt. kosái̯k ko la ti̯asta i fero, ke se vedua da lontu͡ọn} "At the time, on their heads they were wearing, in their hair – i kavéi̯ in Italian – they were wearing two silver needles. They were attached to their heads in such a way that they were seen from afar" [Bartoli 2002: 232]. Some other examples: {le vetrune sińáu̯re le portúa le redái̯ne sul kúp} "the old ladies were wearing a hairnet on their heads" [Bartoli 2002: 233]; {me dùl el kúp} "my head hurts" (Petris) [Bartoli 2002: 256]; {col cóplo viard in tiásta} "with a green hat on her head" [Bartoli 2002: 299-300]. We treat these words as synonyms.
Schmid 2015. There are two expressions for 'head' in Rumantsch Grischun: ɕaw {chau} and tˈɛšt-ǝ {testa}. According to Schmid, they are synonyms, but we presume that the difference is the same as in Sursilvan and Vallader, so we include only the first word in the list.
Schmid 2015. There are two expressions for 'head' in Surmiran: ȶˈe-ǝ {tgea} and tˈɛšt-ǝ {testa}. According to Schmid, they are synonyms, but we presume that the difference is the same as in Sursilvan and Vallader, so we include only the first word in the list.
Davico 2016. Distinct from bˈyok-a {bioca} 'head / brain / consciousness, intelligence' used in the informal speech, especially in the figural meaning, cf. {esè sansa bioca} "to behave in a dumb/stupid way", literally "to be without head".
Vercellese Piemontese:tˈɛst-a2
Noris 2015.
Bergamo Lombard:ko {có}1
Garlini 2015.
Plesio Lombard:kˈo-o {coo}1
Selva 2015. Distinct from krˈap-a {crapa} 'head' of substrate origin, which is more archaic, preserved in certain collocations, such as {crapa de mort} 'skull' or {crapa mata} 'fool' [Selva 2015].
Sacchi 2015. Distinct from sˈuk-a {sùca} 'head (pejorative)' (literary 'pumpkin') of Italian origin and from the obsolete term kɔː {cô} 'head' [Sacchi 2015].
There are two terms for 'head': kˈap-o {capo} and tˈɛst-a {testa}. They are comparable in frequency, and it seems that there is no difference between them in semantics or stylistics: both can be applied to the speaker's own head ({leva' il capo a proferer più erto} "I lifted more erect my head to speak" [Par. 3]; {Drizzai la testa per veder chi fossi} "I raised my head to see who this might be" [Purg. 24]), another person's head ({Questi fuor cherci, che non han coperchio // piloso al capo} "Clerks those were who no hairy covering // have on the head" [Inf. 7]; {ch'a lui fu' giunto, alzò la testa a pena} "I came to him he hardly raised his head" [Purg. 4]) and fantastic creature's head ({Cagnazzo a cotal motto levò 'l muso, // crollando 'l capo} "Cagnazzo at these words his muzzle lifted, // shaking his head" [Inf. 22]; {Oh quanto parve a me gran maraviglia // quand' io vidi tre facce a la sua testa!} "O, what a marvel it appeared to me, // when I beheld three faces on his head!" [Inf. 34]).
Standard Italian:tˈɛst-a {testa}2
Passerini Tosi 1989: 1788. Distinct from kˈap-o {capo} 'head', which is either obsolete, or dialectal, or used in a figurative sense (chief of a tribe etc.) [Vitali 2015].
Buttu 2015. Goes back to Latin {concha} 'mollusc, shell-fish, shell, shell-like object', which is borrowed from Ancient Greek {κόГ̊Г̄Г̥} 'mussel, cockle, shell-like object' of substrate origin [Beekes 2010: 728], but we do not technically regard this word as a borrowing, since the meaning shift {'shell-like object' > 'head'} took place already in Logudorese.
Campidanese:kˈɔŋk-a {conca}3
Ballicu 2015; Pintus 2015; Casciu 2006: 122. See comment on 'head' in the Logudorese list. Domus de Maria: kˈɔŋk-a {conca} 'head' [Fadda 2015].
Palermitan Sicilian:tˈyɛst-a {tiesta}2
Messina 2015; Ornato 2015. A generic and more widespread term for both human and animal head. Distinct from kˈap-a {capa} 'human head' [Messina 2015]. Termini Imerese: tˈɛst-a {testa} 'head' [La Bua 2015]. Buscemi: tˈɛst-a {testa} 'head', distinct from {'n capu} 'upon', cf. {pigghia u telefunu [i]n capu ô tavulu} "take the phone upon the table" [Coccimiglio 2016].
Messinese Sicilian:tˈɛst-a {testa}2
Salzano 2015; Stornanti 2015; Sorbello 2015.
Catanian Sicilian:tˈɛst-a {testa}2
Corsaro 2015; La Mattina 2015; Salerno 2015.
South-Eastern Sicilian:tˈɛst-a {testa}2
Leggio 2015; Miccichè 2015.
Central Catalan:kap {cap}1
Alòs i Font 2015; Llorens 2015; EDCC 1993: 43. Distinct from the obsolete term tˈest-ǝ {testa} 'head' [Alòs i Font 2015].
North-Western Catalan:kap {cap}1
Montagut 2015; Balletbò 2015.
Minorcan Catalan:kap {cap}1
Cardona 2015.
Castelló de la Plana Catalan:kap {cap}1
Barreda 2015.
Valencia Catalan:kap {cap}1
Pérez i Sanchis 2015.
Manises Catalan:kap {cap}1
Pedrós 2015.
Castilian Spanish:kɑβˈeθ-a {cabeza}1
Valén 2015.
Asturian:tˈyest-a {tiesta}2
Riego-Delgado 2016. There are two terms for 'head': tˈyest-a {tiesta} and kabˈeθ-a {cabeza}. According to Riego-Delgado, they are synonyms. Langreo: tˈyest-a {tiesta} 'head' [González Rato 2016].
Standard Portuguese:kɐβˈes-ɐ {cabeça}1
Voinova et al. 1989: 110.
Galician:kaβˈeθ-a {cabeza}1
Montoya Bolaños 2015; Franco Grande 1968: 773; Fernández Armesto 1981: 143; Carré Alvarellos 1972: 935, 209. Distinct from tˈɛst-a {testa} 'forehead', which can also be used in colloquial speech in the meaning 'head' [Montoya Bolaños 2016].
Provençal Occitan:tˈɛst-o {tèsto}2
Coupier 1995: 1389-1390.
Savoyard Franco-Provençal:tˈet-a {téta}2
Viret 2013: 2088-2089. There are also a lot of pejorative words for 'head', which we do not include into the list [Viret 2013: 2088-2089].
Old French:čyef {chief}1
There are two terms for 'head': čyef {chief} 'head / end, extremity', which occurs 139 times [EDCT 2014: 194-195] and tˈɛst-ǝ {teste} 'head', which is attested 79 times [EDCT 2014: 1078]. It seems that the second one in Chrétien's times still had a slightly pejorative shade. Generally it is used in the contexts of battle, especially in the situation of decapitation of an enemy, cf. the following examples: {jusqu'au test l'espee n'areste, // .i. os li tranche de la teste, // mes nel tocha an la cervele} "The sword even reaches the skull and cuts a bone of his head, but without penetrating the brain" (Erec 975-977); {Quant lui remanbre de l'outrage // que ses nains li fist el boschage, // la teste li eüst colpee colpee // se il n'eüst merci criee} "When Erec thinks of the insult done him by the dwarf in the wood, he would have cut off his head, had he not cried for mercy" (Erec 985-988); {Ou soit a certes ou a geus, // feites le prandre et afoler // ou de la teste decoler} "Either in earnest or in jest, have him seized and treated ill, or strike his head off, if you will" (Erec 3384-3386); {Assez i ot testes colpees} "Though they struck off many a head" (Cligès 1330), this term is used in similar negative contexts: {Bien ot la parole et les diz, // mes tote voie outre s'an passe: // ne tint mie la teste basse, // ne fist pas sanblant de coart} "He hears clearly the words and what they said; but notwithstanding, he passes on without lowering his head, and without the bearing of a craven" (Erec 5672-5675); {Vos conparroiz ancui mout chier // vostre folie, par ma teste} "You will pay dearly for your presumption, by my head!" (Erec 5862-5863). It is also applied to animal heads: {La pane qui i fu cosue // fu d'unes contrefetes bestes // qui ont totes blondes les testes} "The fur lining that was sewed within, belonged to some strange beasts whose heads are all white" (Erec 6732-6734). It can be also used in more neutral contexts ({onques nus ne vint d'autre terre // la Joie de la Cort requerre // qu'il n'i eüst honte et domage // et n'i leissast la teste an gage} "no one ever came from another land to claim the `Joy of the Court' who did not receive shame and harm, and leave his head there as a forfeit" (Erec 5465-5468); {Des ore an savez vos itant // que li piex vostre teste atant} "For this much we know, that the stake awaits your head" (Erec 5757-5758)), but the term čyef {chief} seems more universal, it can be applied both to positive and negative heroes: {le hiaume brun li met el chief, // mout l'arme bien de chief an chief} "the gleaming helmet she sets upon his head, and thus arms him well from tip to toe" (about Erec's head; Erec 715-716); {Qant la bele pucele estrange // vit toz les chevaliers an range // qui l'esgardoient a estal, // son chief ancline contreval} "When the stranger maiden saw all the knights arrayed looking steadfastly at her, she bowed her head in embarrassment" (Erec 1707-1710); {Erec par le hiaume le sache, // a force del chief li arache // et la vantaille li deslace, // le chief li desarme et la face} "Erec grabs him by the helmet and forcibly drags it from his head, and unlaces the ventail, so that his head and face are completely exposed" (Erec 981-984). We regard čyef {chief} as the more neutral and frequent word and include only this term in the list.
Cf. some examples: {Egomet mihi non credo, cum illaec autumare illum audio} "I do not trust my own self, when I hear him affirm these things" [Amph. 416]; {Dum haec aguntur, interea uxorem tuam neque gementem neque plorantem nostrum quisquam audivimus; ita profecto sine dolore peperit} "While these things were passing, meanwhile, not one of us heard your wife groaning or complaining; and thus, in fact, without pain was she delivered" [Amph. 1098-1100]; {est profecto deus, qui quae nos gerimus auditque et videt} "There is undoubtedly a God, who both hears and sees the things which we do" [Capt. 313].
Late Classical Latin:awd-ˈiː-rɛ {audire}1
Some examples are: {Audivi vesperi, meis his, inquam, auribus audivi} "I heard her this evening – heard her with my very own ears" [Met. 3: 16]; {Ego sum Byrrhena illa, cuius forte saepicule nomen inter tuos educatores frequentatum retines} "I am Byrrhena, whose name I think you'll often have heard among those who educated you" [Met. 2: 3].
Megleno Romanian:ut {ud}1
Capidan 1935: 312. Distinct from skult {scult} 'to listen' [Capidan 1935: 261] and from čul {tšul} 'to listen' of Slavic origin [Capidan 1935: 101].
Papahagi 1963: 180; Cunia 2010: 163; Dalametra 1906: 34; Bara et al. 2005: 291; Goɫąb 1984: 204. In the Northern dialects an Albanian loanword dǝguyˈ-esk-u {dăguéscu} 'to hear' is used as well [Papahagi 1963: 377; Cunia 2010: 377]. Distinct from askˈult-u {ascúltu} 'to listen, to obey' [Papahagi 1963: 163; Cunia 2010: 142; Dalametra 1906: 30; Goɫąb 1984: 202].
Romanian:a=awz-ˈi {a auzi}1
DER 2004: 449; Bolocan et al. 1985: 1379; Gancz 2015. Distinct from a=askult-ˈa {a asculta} 'to listen' [DER 2004: 567; Bolocan et al. 1985: 1379]. Moldavian: a=awz-ˈi {a auzi} 'to hear' [Podiko 1973: 862; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 413-414].
Dalmatian:sent-ˈa-r {sentár}2
Polysemy: 'to hear / to feel'. Some examples are: {te si̯ánte ke fero uṅ tu̯áṅ} "hear a clap of thunder" [Bartoli 2002: 236]; {ju nu si̯ante de kó ke tu dekája} "I do not hear what you are saying" [Bartoli 2002: 250]; {ju siante ke me dolúa el si̯áṅ} "I feel that my breast hurts, here, at the front" [Bartoli 2002: 241]. Distinct from skult-ˈua {skultúa} 'I am listening', cf. {ju skultúa de kó ke-i parlúa} "I am listening to what are they talking about" [Bartoli 2002: 253].
Caneve 2015. Distinct from skolt-ˈa-r {scoltar} 'to listen' [Caneve 2015].
Old Italian:ud-ˈi-re {udire}1
Dante uses three verbs in the meaning 'to hear': ud-ˈi-re {udire}, sent-ˈi-re {sentire} and in=tˈɛnd-e-re {intendere}. We include ud-ˈi-re {udire} as the most universal equivalent, cf. the following examples: {ove udirai le disperate strida} "where thou shalt hear the desperate lamentations" [Inf. 1]; {Non odi tu la pieta del suo pianto} "Dost thou not hear the pity of his plaint?" [Inf. 2]; {io mi sia tardi al soccorso levata, // per quel ch'i' ho di lui nel cielo udito} "I too late have risen to his succour, // from that which I have heard of him in Heaven" [Inf. 2]; {che è quel ch'i' odo?} "what is this which now I hear?"" [Inf. 3]; {udito questo, quando alcuna pianta // sanza seme palese vi s'appiglia} "this being heard, whenever any plant // without seed manifest there taketh root" [Purg. 28]; {E come a messagger che porta ulivo // tragge la gente per udir novella} "And as to messenger who bears the olive // the people throng to listen to the news" [Purg. 2].
The term in=tˈɛnd-e-re {intendere} underlines that the listener understands what he hears. It is used when someone hears some information. The following examples show it clearly: {sentia dir lor con sì alti sospiri, // che la parola a pena s'intendea} "I heard them say with sighings so profound, // that hardly could the words be understood" [Purg. 19]; {come a colui che non intende e ode} "as unto him who hears and comprehends not" [Par. 24]. Some other examples on {intendere}: {Gran duol mi prese al cor quando lo 'ntesi} "Great grief seized on my heart when this I heard" [Inf. 4]; {dirotti perch' io venni e quel ch'io 'ntesi // nel primo punto che di te mi dolve} "I'll tell thee why I came, and what I heard // at the first moment when I grieved for thee" [Inf. 2]; {Per quest' andata onde li dai tu vanto, // intese cose} "Upon this journey, whence thou givest him vaunt, // things did he hear" [Inf. 2].
The term sent-ˈi-re {sentire} 'to hear / to feel', which replaced ud-ˈi-re {udire} in modern Italian, can be used as a synonym of ud-ˈi-re {udire} already in Dante's language, but usually it is applied when someone hears something unintelligible, not containing information: {Maestro, quai son quelle genti // che, seppellite dentro da quell' arche, // si fan sentir coi sospiri dolenti?} "My Master, what are all those people // who, having sepulture within those tombs, // make themselves audible by doleful sighs?" [Inf. 9]; {però ch'i' vidi fuochi e senti' pianti} "because I fires beheld, and heard laments" [Inf. 17]; {Io senti' mormorare a tutti «Adamo»} "I heard them murmur altogether, "Adam!"" [Purg. 32]. It seems that in Dante's times the process of replacement had only just began.
The following example, containing all three verbs (sent-ˈi-re {sentire}, however, in the meaning 'to feel, to perceive' and in=tˈɛnd-e-re {intendere} rather in the meaning 'to understand'), demonstrates that the basic word for 'to hear' was ud-ˈi-re {udire}: {Allora udi': «Dirittamente senti, // se bene intendi perché la ripuose // tra le sustanze, e poi tra li argomenti} "Then heard I: "Very rightly thou perceivest, // if well thou understandest why he placed it // with substances and then with evidences." [Par. 24].
Standard Italian:sent-ˈi-re {sentire}2
Passerini Tosi 1989: 1790. Polysemy: 'to feel / to hear'. The old term ud-ˈi-re {udire} 'to hear' is used more seldom now [Vitali 2015]. Distinct from askolt-ˈa-re {ascoltare} 'to listen' [Passerini Tosi 1989: 1915]
Grosseto Italian:sent-ˈi-re {sentire}2
Marcelli 2015. Polysemy: 'to feel / to hear'. Distinct from in=tˈɛnd-e-re {intendere} 'to hear', which is obsolete. Distinct from askolt-ˈa-re {ascoltare} 'to listen' [Marcelli 2015].
Alòs i Font 2015; Llorens 2015; EDCC 1993: 206. Distinct from ǝskuɫt-ˈa {escoltar} 'to listen' and from the more literary term u-ˈi {oir} 'to hear' [Alòs i Font 2015; Llorens 2015].
Coupier 1995: 502-503. Borrowed from Old French {entendre} 'to hear'. There are two expressions for 'to hear': en=tˈɛnd-ɾe {entèndre} and awz-ˈi {ausi}. Coupier mentions them as synonyms. Distinct from eskut-ˈa {escouta} 'to listen' [Coupier 1995: 457].
Savoyard Franco-Provençal:aw-ˈi-re {awire}1
Viret 2013: 863-864. There are two terms for 'to hear': aw-ˈi-re {awire} and ɛ̃=tˈɛ̃d-re {intindre} ~ ɛ=tˈɛd-re {êtêdre}. Viret provides two terms without differentiation in this case. We include both in the list. Giettaz: {chantre} 'to hear'; Bourg-Saint-Maurice, Côte-d'Aime: {chintre} 'to hear'; Bessans {sintré} 'to hear'; Bonneval en Tarentaise: {sîntre} 'to hear'; Montagny vers Bozel: {sintre} 'to hear'.
Old French:o-ˈi-r {öir}1
EDCT 2014: 764-766. The process of gradual replacement of o-ˈi-r {öir} by ãn=tˈãnd-rǝ {entendre} had just begun. In Chrétien's times o-ˈi-r {öir} is still more frequent (368 versus 139 occurences) and ãn=tˈãnd-rǝ {entendre} has a connotation of intellectual perception, understanding [EDCT 2014: 400-401]. We include only o-ˈi-r {öir} in the list. Distinct from eskowt-ˈeː-r {escouter} 'to listen' [EDCT 2014: 430].
Leplubo 2016. The examples are: {i n' intind rien} "I don't hear anything", {os intindons l'cloke} "we hear the bell". Much less frequent is the term aw-i-ʁ {aouïr}, which also means 'to hear': {j'ai aoui ène canchon} "I've heard a song". Distinct from akut-e {acouter} 'listen' [Leplubo 2016].
Walloon:a=tɛ̃t {atinde}3
Mahin 2016. There are two terms for 'to hear' : oː-ʀ {ôre} and a=tɛ̃t {atinde}. According to [Mahin 2016], the first term is now perceived as slightly more archaic, so we include only a=tɛ̃t {atinde} in the list. Rifondou: oː-ʀ {ôre} 'to hear', e=tɛ̃t {etinde} 'to hear' with the same difference (oː-ʀ {ôre} is mostly used in the regions of Liège and Ardennes, seldom in Namur, never in Charleroi) [Mahin 2016]. Distinct from šuːt-e {choûter} 'to listen' (Rifondou: skuːt-e {schoûter} 'to listen').
Genitive form: kˈɔrd-ɪs {cordis}. Some examples are: {pectus digitis pultat, cor credo evocaturust foras} "He strikes his breast with his fingers I fancy he's about to call his heart outside" [Mil. 202]; {Iam horret corpus, cor salit} "Now my body's in a shudder, my heart is throbbing" [Cist. 551]; {Lien enecat, renes dolent, pulmones distrahuntur, cruciatur iecur, radices cordis pereunt, hirae omnes dolent} "My spleen is killing me, my reins are in torment, my lungs are being torn asunder, my liver is being tortured, my heart-strings are giving way, all my intestines are in pain" [Curc. 236-238].
Late Classical Latin:kɔr {cor}1
Cf. some examples: {immissa dextera per vulnus illud ad viscera penitus cor miseri contubernalis mei Meroe bona scrutata protulit} "she stuck her right hand into the wound right down to his innards, felt for my poor comrade's heart, and plucked it out" [Met. 1: 13]; {Tunc ego trepidans, adsiduo cursu micanti corde, coronam, quae rosis amoenis intexta fulgurabat, avido ore susceptam cupidus promissi devoravi} "My heart leapt with a rapid beat, and I trembled as I tore with eager mouth at the glistening wreath woven of lovely roses, which greedy for the outcome promised I greedily devoured" [Met. 11: 13].
Megleno Romanian:burˈik {buríc}2
Capidan 1935: 50. Polysemy: 'navel / stomach / heart / mind'. This seems to be the basic term for 'heart' in both anatomic and metaphoric senses. Cf. the available examples: {i̯o tser ună niveastă cum ăi̯ meu̯ buric, tari si ii̯ă} "I'm searching for the one who lives in my heart, to marry her" [Capidan 1928: 97], {și feata ạnmărǫtă și ạnrușinată tucum stricnì la buric} "and the heart of the sad and embarrassed girl suddenly started beating faster" [Capidan 1928: 93], {ạľ si lipì la buric} "she fell in love with him" (literally "he stuck to her heart") [Capidan 1928: 83]; {ań ișǫ di la buric} "gone from my heart" (= I don't care about it anymore) [Capidan 1928: 169]. Distinct from the more archaic and apparently obsolete term for 'heart', ˈiɲǝm-ǝ {íńămă} which is, however, also attested: {aľ rupsi ińăma} "she is heartbroken" (about a mother who lost her child), {ari cucot la ińămă} "he has a rooster in his heart' (about enterprising people) [Capidan 1935: 156].
DER 2004: 449-450; Bolocan et al. 1985: 1345; Gancz 2015. Goes back to the Latin {anima} 'soul'. Moldavian: ˈyinim-ǝ {inimă} 'heart' [Podiko 1973: 840; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 45].
Dalmatian:kwor {ku͡ọr}1
Some examples are: {ire are ku͡ọr mi bún no me abàndunúre} "Ire Are, my heart, don't abandon me" [Bartoli 2002: 231]; {Jú vis in cur máj} "I go into my heart" [Bartoli 2002: 290].
The form kˈɔr-e {core}, influenced by Old Sicilian, is possible as well [Patota 2002: 57]. Some examples are: {da quella parte onde 'l cuore ha la gente} "upon that side where people have their hearts" [Purg. 10]; {Gran duol mi prese al cor quando lo 'ntesi} "Great grief seized on my heart when this I heard" [Inf. 4].
EDCT 2014: 276-277. Polysemy: 'heart / centre of inner life'.
Standard French:kœʁ {cœur}1
Robert-Collins 1989: 304; Rayevskaya 2013: 585.
Picard:čœʁ {tchœur}1
Leplubo 2016.
Walloon:kœːʀ {keûr}1
Mahin 2016. Rifondou: kuʀ {cour} 'heart'.
NUMBER:41
WORD:horn
Archaic Latin:kˈɔrnuː {cornu}1
Cf. some examples: {asini me mordicibus scindant, boves incursent cornibus} "the asses would tear me with their teeth, the oxen would butt at me with their horns" [Aul. 234]; {Ah ah, abi atque cave sis a cornu} "Be off, and do be careful, will you, of the horns" [Persa 316-317]; {ne malus item erga me sit ut erga illum fuit, ne in re secunda nunc mi obvertat cornua} "lest in his prosperity he may now turn his horns against me, if he finds an opportunity" [Pseud. 1020-1021].
Late Classical Latin:kˈɔrnuː {cornu}1
Some examples are: {nec vero istud horae contra formidabiles oves feras aditum, quoad de solis fraglantia mutuatae calorem truci rabie solent efferri cornuque acuto et fronte saxea et non nunquam venenatis morsibus in exitium saevire mortalium} "Don't go near those dreadful sheep right now, as they soak up heat from the burning sun and burst out in wild fits of madness, venting their fury on passers-by with those sharp horns set in stony foreheads and their venomous bite" [Met. 6: 12]; {nec enim Charite maritum suum quaerere patiebatur bestias armatas dente vel cornu} "Charite being unable to endure the thought of her husband seeking creatures armed with tusks or horns" [Met. 8: 4].
Cf. some examples: {Le prime eran cornute come bue, // ma le quattro un sol corno avean per fronte} "The first were horned like oxen; but the four // had but a single horn upon the forehead" [Purg. 32]; {quando 'l corno // de la capra del ciel col sol si tocca} "what time the horn // of the celestial Goat doth touch the sun" [Par. 27].
Alòs i Font 2015; Llorens 2015; EDCC 1993: 75. Of Gaulish origin. The inherited term kɔɾn {corn} is preserved in the meaning 'horn (instrument)' [Alòs i Font 2015].
Voinova et al. 1989: 544-545. There are two words for 'horn': kˈoɾn-u {corno} and šˈifɾ-ǝ {chifre} [Voinova et al. 1989: 544-545]. According to [Pimentel Ferreira 2016], the first term tends to be applied to conical curved horns such as bull, rhino and goat horns, while the second term is used mostly to designate horns with ramifications, such as moose horns, but both terms can often be used interchangeably. We treat them as synonyms.
Voinova et al. 1989: 544-545. Borrowed from old Spanish {chifle} 'horn', derived from {chiflar} 'to whistle' [Nascentes 1955: 114].
Galician:
Provençal Occitan:
Savoyard Franco-Provençal:
Old French:
Standard French:
Picard:
Walloon:
NUMBER:42
WORD:I
Archaic Latin:ˈɛgoː ~ ˈɛgɔ {ego}1
Paradigm: ˈɛgoː ~ ˈɛgɔ {ego} [nom.] / mˈɛiː {mei} [gen.] / mˈɪhɪ ~ mˈɪhiː {mihi} ~ miː {mi} {dat.} / meːd {med} ~ meː {me} [acc.] / meːd {med} ~ meː {me} [abl.]. Some examples are: {eo vos vestros panticesque adeo madefactatis, quom ego sim hic siccus} "You are a-soaking away yourselves and your paunches too, at the very time that I'm here a-dry" [Pseud. 184]; {contagione mei patris metuo malum} "through my relationship to my father, stand in dread of ill" [Amph. 31]; {cedo soleas mihi } "Give me my shoes" [Most. 383]; {Da mi, optuma femina, manum} "Best of women, give me your hand" [Aul. 135]; {Tu negas med esse?} "Do you deny that I am?" [Amph. 434]; {Di me perdant, si bibi} "The Gods confound me if I did drink" [Mil. 834]; {ecastor med haud invita se domum recipit suam} "By my faith, against no inclination of mine has he betaken himself home" [Amph. 663]; {Vel hercle enica, numquam hinc feres a me} "Even kill me outright, i' faith, you never shall get it hence of me" [Aul. 833-834].
Late Classical Latin:ˈɛgɔ {ego}1
Cf. some examples: {Ego sum Byrrhena illa, cuius forte saepicule nomen inter tuos educatores frequentatum retines} "I am Byrrhena, whose name I think you'll often have heard among those who educated you" [Met. 2: 3]; {Me denique ipsum pauperculus quidam hortulanus comparat quinquaginta nummis} "a poor market-gardener bought me for fifty sestertii" [Met. 9: 31].
Megleno Romanian:yo {i̯o} ~ yew {i̯eu̯} ~ iwǝ {iu̯ă}1
Capidan 1935: 156; Capidan 1925: 151. Direct stem. Paradigm: yew {i̯eu̯} ~ yo {i̯o} ~ iwǝ {iu̯ă} [nom.] / la=mini {la mini} ~ mi {mi} (clitic) ~ ɐɲ {ạń} (clitic) ~ ɲ {ń} (clitic) ~ ɲǝ {ńă} (clitic) [dat.] / mini {mini} ~ mi {mi} (clitic) [acc.].
Istro Romanian:yo {i̯ó}1
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 219; Byhan 1899: 234; Narumov 2001: 667. Direct stem. Paradigm: yo {i̯ó} [nom.] / mˈiye {míi̯e} ~ ǝm {âm} (clitic) ~ m {m} (clitic) ~ ǝmy {âmi̯} (clitic) ~ my {mi̯} (clitic) ~ mi {mi} (clitic) [dat.] / mˈire {míre} ~ me {me} (clitic) ~ m {m} (clitic) [acc.].
Repina & Narumov 2001: 692. Numerous attestations. According to [Repina & Narumov 2001], the paradigm of this pronoun is as follows: yu {iu} [nom.] / me {me} [dat.] / me {me} ~ mi {mi} [acc.].
Friulian:yo {jo}1
Decorte 2015; Virili 2015; Pirona 1871: 225; Haiman & Benincà 1992: 115, 120; Narumov & Sukhachev 2001: 381. Paradigm: yo {jo} ~ o {o} (clitic) [nom.] / a=mˈi {a mi} ~ mi {mi} (clitic) [dat.] / me {me} ~ mi {mi} (clitic) [acc.].
Gardenese Ladin:ye {ie}1
Forni 2015; Gartner 1923: 36; Narumov 2001: 405. Paradigm: ye {ie} [nom.] / a=mi {a mi} ~ me {me} [obl.].
Schmid 2015. Haiman & Benincà 1992: 112, 117. According to [Haiman & Benincà 1992], the paradigm of this pronoun in Surmiran is as follows: ˈiǝ {ia} ~ a {a} (clitic) [nom.] / me {me} ~ am {am} (clitic) [obl.].
Parodi 2015. The oblique form is me {me} ~ m {m'} (before a vowel).
Stella Ligurian:mi {mì}2
Piccone 2015. The oblique form is me {me} ~ m {m'} (before a vowel).
Venice Venetian:mi {mi}2
Tosi 2015; Gasparini 2015; Tre 2015; Melon 2015; Busato 2015; Poletto 2015; Cortiana 2015; Ricchieri 2015; Clementi 2015; Serena 2015; Pezzin 2015; Zanetti 2015. Paradigm: mi {mi} [nom.] / mi {mi} ~ me {me} (clitic) [obl.] [Chelysheva 2001: 122; Tre 2015].
Primiero Venetian:mi {mi}2
Gaio 2015. Paradigm: mi {mi} [nom.] / mi {mi}(after prepositions) ~ me {me} [obl.].
Bellunese Venetian:mi {mi}2
Caneve 2015.
Old Italian:ˈio {io}1
Some examples are: {And I, who have been lying in this pain // five hundred years and more} "E io, che son giaciuto a questa doglia // cinquecent' anni e più" [Purg. 21]; {novi tormenti e novi tormentati // mi veggio intorno, come ch'io mi mova} "new torments I behold, and new tormented // around me, whichsoever way I move" [Inf. 6].
Buttu 2015; Narumov 2001: 177. More formal word ˈego {ego} 'I' is more formal; the variants ˈeo {éo} and ˈyeo {ieo} 'I' are more colloquial [Buttu 2015]. Paradigm: dˈeo {déo} [nominative] / mˈi-me {mime} ~ mˈi-mːe {mimme} ~ mˈi-mːi {mimmi} ~ me {me} ~ mˈe-ne {mene} ~ mi {mi} (clitic) ~ m {m'} [obl.].
Campidanese:dɛw {deu}1
Ballicu 2015; Pintus 2015; Casciu 2006: 153; Narumov 2001: 177. Paradigm: dew {deu} [nom.] / mˈi-mi {mimi} ~ mɛy {mei} ~ mi {mi} (clitic) ~ m {m'} (clitic) [obl.]. Domus de Maria: dɛw {deu} [Fadda 2015].
Coupier 1995: 899; Lobodanov, Morozova, Chelysheva 2001: 299. Paradigm: yew {iéu} [nom.] / me {me} [obl.].
Savoyard Franco-Provençal:dɛ {dè}1
Viret 2013: 1208-1210.
Old French:ǯǝ {je}1
Chelysheva 2001: 268. Paradigm: ǯǝ {je} [nom.] / moy {moi} ~ me {me} (clitic) [obj.]. Does not have a separate entry in the EDCT, but very frequently occurs in texts, cf. some examples: {tant com il sont ancor si pres // je et vos iriens après} "while they are still nearby, I and you will ride after them" (Lancelot 229-230); {Dites moi, biax ostes, fet il} ""Tell me, fair host", he asked" (Erec 505); {Merci! Ne m'ocirre tu pas!} "Mercy now, and do not kill me" (Erec 990).
Leplubo 2016. Paradigm: ež {éj} [nom.] / mi {mi} ~ m {m'} (elided) [obl.]. Examples are: {i m'donnoait un life} "He gave me a book", {i m'connoait} "He knows me" [Leplubo 2016].
Walloon:ǯü {dju}1
Mahin 2016. Paradigm: ǯü {dju} [nom.] / mi {mi} [obl.]. Rifondou: ǯi {dji} [nom.] / mi {mi} [obl.].
NUMBER:42
WORD:I
Archaic Latin:meːd {med}2
Accusative form.
Late Classical Latin:meː {me}2
Accusative form.
Megleno Romanian:mini {mini}2
Capidan 1925: 151. Accusative form.
Istro Romanian:mˈire {míre}2
Narumov 2001: 667. Accusative form.
Aromanian:mˈine {mine}2
Capidan 1932: 408, 411. Accusative form.
Romanian:mˈine {mine}2
DER 2004: 476; Bolocan et al. 1985: 1695; Gancz 2015. Accusative form.
Chelysheva & Cherdantseva 2001: 81. The oblique stem.
Grosseto Italian:me {me}2
Marcelli 2015. Oblique stem.
Foligno Italian:me {me}2
Oblique stem.
Neapolitan:me {me}2
Oblique stem.
Logudorese:me {me}2
Buttu 2015; Narumov 2001: 177. Oblique stem.
Campidanese:mɛy {mei}2
Oblique form. Narumov 2001: 177.
Palermitan Sicilian:mi {mi}2
Oblique stem.
Messinese Sicilian:mi {mi}2
Oblique stem.
Catanian Sicilian:mi {mi}2
Oblique stem.
South-Eastern Sicilian:mi {mi}2
Oblique stem.
Central Catalan:mǝ {me}2
Narumov 2001: 508. Oblique form.
North-Western Catalan:me {me}2
Oblique form.
Minorcan Catalan:mɛ {mè}2
Cardona 2015. Oblique form.
Castelló de la Plana Catalan:me {me}2
Barreda 2015. Oblique form.
Valencia Catalan:me {me}2
Pérez i Sanchis 2015. Oblique form.
Manises Catalan:me {me}2
Pedrós 2015. Oblique form.
Castilian Spanish:mi {mí}2
Valén 2015. Oblique form.
Asturian:mi {mi}2
Oblique stem.
Standard Portuguese:mǝ {me}2
Oblique stem.
Galician:miŋ {min}2
Oblique stem.
Provençal Occitan:me {me}2
Oblique stem.
Savoyard Franco-Provençal:may {mai} ~ mɛ {mê}2
Viret 2013: 1408-1409.
Old French:moy {moi}2
Oblique stem.
Standard French:mwa {moi}2
Oblique stem.
Picard:mi {mi}2
Oblique stem.
Walloon:mi {mi}2
Oblique stem.
NUMBER:43
WORD:kill
Archaic Latin:ɔ=kːˈiːd-ɛ-rɛ {occidere}1
The most frequent and neutral term for 'to kill'. Some examples are: {Memini: centum in Cilicia et quinquaginta, centum in Scytholatronia, triginta Sardos, sexaginta Macedones sunt homines quos tu occidisti uno die} "I do remember this. In{U+00A0}Cilicia there were a hundred and fifty men, a hundred in Cryphiolathronia, thirty at Sardis, sixty men of Macedon, whom you slaughtered altogether in one day" [Mil. 42-45]; {Quid in Cappadocia, ubi tu quingentos simul, ni hebes machaera foret, uno ictu occideras?} "Besides, in Cappadocia, you would have killed five hundred men altogether at one blow, had not your sabre been blunt" [Mil. 52-53]; {cedo soleas mihi, ut arma capiam. iam pol ego occidam patrem} "Give me my shoes, that I may take up arms. On my word, I'll kill your father this instant" [Most. 383-384]; {Quin occidisti extemplo?} "Why didn't you kill him on the instant?" [Rud. 841]; {Atque occidi quoque, potius quam cibum praehiberem} "Aye, and killed them, too, rather than find them food" [Pseud. 367-368]; {Pterela rex qui potitavit, quem ego mea occidi manu} "from which king Pterelas used to drink, he whom I slew with my own hand" [Amph. 535]; {tum patrem occidisse et matrem vendidisse etiam scio} "I know, too, that you murdered your father and sold your mother" [Men. 944]; {Quippe qui ex te audivi, ut urbem maximam expugnavisses regemque Pterelam tute occideris} "Why, I heard it from your own self, how you had taken a very large city, and how you yourself had slain king Pterelas" [Amph. 745-746]; {quom sexaginta milia hominum uno die volaticorum manibus occidi meis} "in one day, I slew sixty thousand flying men" [Poen. 472-473].
The term nɛk-ˈaː-rɛ {necare} 'to kill' is much less frequent. The examples are: {di deaeque me omnes pessumis exemplis interficiant, nisi ego illam anum interfecero siti fameque atque algu} "May all the Gods and Goddesses destroy me in the worst of fashions, if I don't kill this old hag with thirst, and hunger, and cold" [Most. 192-193]; {Hospes necavit hospitem captum manu; iste, ut ego opinor, qui has tibi aedis vendidit} "A host slew his guest, seized with his hand; he, I fancy, who sold you the house" [Most. 479-480]; {si quod peperissem id <non> necarem ac tollerem, bona sua med habiturum omnia [esse]} "If I should raise and bring up the child which I should bear, that then I should have all his property" [Truc. 399-400].
Distinct from ɔp=trʊŋk-ˈaː-rɛ {obtruncare} 'to slaughter / to kill', which had an expressive connotation: {ipsusque Amphitruo regem Pterelam sua obtruncavit manu} "Amphitryon himself, with his own hand, struck off the head of Pterelas their king" [Amph. 252]; {seu patrem sive avom videbo, obtruncabo in aedibus} "whether father or whether grandfather, I'll behead that person in the house" [Amph. 1050]; {et legiones Teloboarum vi pugnando cepimus, et ipsus Amphitruo optruncavit regem Pterelam in proelio} "and the legions of the Teleboans in fighting we took by arms, and Amphitryon himself cut off the head of king Pterelas in battle" [Amph. 414-415]; {ita mihi pectus peracuit: capio fustem, obtrunco gallum, furem manufestarium} "So exasperated were my feelings, I took a stick, and knocked off the head of the cock - a thief caught in the act" [Aul. 468-469]; {nam ni illic hodie forte fortuna hic foret, miles Mnesilochum cum uxore opprimeret sua atque obtruncaret moechum manufestarium} "But if he hadn't, by lucky chance, been here today, the Captain would have surprised Mnesilochus with his wife, and have killed him as an adulterer detected in the fact" [Bac. 916-918]; {nisi ego teque tuamque filiam meque hodie obtruncavero, poste autem cum primo luci cras nisi ambo occidero, et equidem hercle nisi pedatu tertio omnis efflixero} "if I don't this very day murder you and your daughter and myself, and after that, with the break of day, if I don't to-morrow kill you both, and indeed, by all the powers, if at the third onset I don't demolish you all" [Cist. 524-526].
Distinct from eː=nɪk-ˈaː-rɛ {enicare} 'to kill / to torture to death / to hurt (about organs) / to tire, to bore / to kill (in the figurative sense)', cf. 1) 'to kill': {Vel hercle enica, non tacebo umquam alio pacto, nisi talento comprimor} "Troth now, do you kill me even; I'll never be silent on any terms, unless my mouth is shut with the talent" [Rud. 1401-1402]; {Puer ambo angues enicat} "The child slew both the serpents" [Amph. 1119]; {Pacisce ergo, obsecro, quid tibi lubet, dum ne manifesto hominem opprimat neve enicet} "Make terms, then, I beg, for what you like; so that he mayn't, in our presence, fall upon the young man, or kill him outright" [Bac. 866-867]; {Vel hercle enica, numquam hinc feres a me} "Even kill me outright, i' faith, you never shall get it hence of me" [Aul. 833-834]; {Celabat metuebatque te, ne tu sibi persuaderes, ut abortioni operam daret puerumque ut enicaret} "She concealed it from you and was afraid, lest you should persuade her to have recourse to abortion, and so destroy the child" [Truc. 200-201]; 2) 'to torture to death': {At ego deos credo voluisse ut apud me te in nervo enicem} "But I believe that the Gods have willed that I should be the death of you in fetters" [Aul. 743]; {Perii hercle, ni ego illam pessumis exemplis enicasso} "Heavens, I'm a dead man if I don't torture her to death after the most shocking fashion" [Most. 212]; {In anginam ego nunc me velim verti, ut veneficae illi fauces prehendam atque enicem scelestam stimulatricem} "I could wish myself this instant changed into a quinsy, that I might seize the throat of that old witch, and put an end to the wicked mischief-maker" [Most. 218-219]; {et ni Scapham enicasso} "and if I don't torture Scapha to death" [Most. 223]; {Emitte sodes, ne enices fame; sine ire pastum} "don't starve them with hunger - do let them go to pasture" [Persa 318]; {nempe optimo <me> iure in vinclis enicet magistratus si quis me hanc habere viderit} "In such case, with very good reason, the magistrate will be letting me die in prison, if any one shall see me holding this" [Rud. 476-477]; 3) 'to hurt (about organs)': {simul enicat suspiritus} "troth, I can hardly fetch my breath" [Mer. 114]; {Lien enecat, renes dolent, pulmones distrahuntur, cruciatur iecur, radices cordis pereunt, hirae omnes dolent} "My spleen is killing me, my reins are in torment, my lungs are being torn asunder, my liver is being tortured, my heart-strings are giving way, all my intestines are in pain" [Curc. 236-238]; 4) 'to tire, to bore': {Pol me quidem miseram odio enicavit} "Troth, he really will this day be the death of wretched me, through sheer disgust" [Asin. 920-921]; {Ah, lassitudinem hercle verba tua mihi addunt, enicas} "Ah! your words, upon my faith, are increasing my weakness. You are worrying me to death!" [Merc. 156-157]; {enicas} "You are worrying me to death"" [Merc. 493]; {Ah, odio me enicas} "you are worrying me to death" [Persa 48a]; {Enicas} "You worry me to death" [Persa 485]; {Enecas} "You plague me to death" [Cas. 233]; {Enicas me} "you torment me to death" [Poen. 1267a]; {Enicas iam me odio, quisquis es} "Then, whoever you are, you are worrying me to death with your annoyance" [Rud. 944]; {Oh, enicas me miseram, quisquis es} "O dear, you're teazing wretched me to death, whoever you are" [Truc. 118-119]; 5) 'to kill (in the figurative sense)': {auctor sum ut me amando enices} "I give you leave to torture me to death here with being in love" [Merc. 312]; {uxor me exspectat iam dudum esuriens domi; iam iurgio enicabit, si intro rediero} "my wife has been some time expecting me at home quite hungry: now, she'll be worrying me to death with her scolding" [Merc. 556-557]; {Quia aequalem et sodalem, liberum civem, enicas} "Because you are killing your year's-mate and friend, a free citizen" [Merc. 612]; {Quin me eradicas miserum} "Why, you are utterly ruining wretched me" [Merc. 775]; {enicas me miserum tua reticentia} "you are torturing to death wretched me by your silence" [Merc. 893]; {E. Tempus non est intro eundi. CH. Enicas} "E. It's not a convenient moment to go into the house. CH. You are torturing me to death" [Merc. 916]; {Absolve hunc quaeso, vomitu ne hic nos enecet} "Prithee, do dismiss this puking fellow, that he mayn't worry us to death" [Most. 652].
There is also the term {effligere} 'to kill / to destroy', which occurs three times: {non tu scis, quam efflictentur homines noctu hic in via?} "Don't you know how men are set upon here in the street at night?" [Stichus 606]; {iam quidem hercle ad illam hinc ibo, quam tu propediem, nisi quidem illa ante occupassit te, effliges scio, luxuriae sumptus suppeditare ut possies} "On my honor, I'll really go this instant hence to her whom I'm sure that you'll very soon be destroying, in order that you may be able to supply your extravagance, unless, indeed, she shall first prevent you" [Asin. 817-819]; {nisi ego teque tuamque filiam meque hodie obtruncavero, poste autem cum primo luci cras nisi ambo occidero, et equidem hercle nisi pedatu tertio omnis efflixero} "if I don't this very day murder you and your daughter and myself, and after that, with the break of day, if I don't to-morrow kill you both, and indeed, by all the powers, if at the third onset I don't demolish you all" [Cist. 524-526].
Late Classical Latin:ɔ=kːˈiːd-ɛ-rɛ {occidere}1
According to Lewis and Short's dictionary, nɛk-ˈaː-rɛ {necare} means 'to kill, usually without a weapon (by poison, hunger, etc.)' [Lewis & Short 1958: 1196], but this does not seem to apply to Apuleius' language. Examples of the usage of this word are relatively few, but those that are attested have the meaning 'to murder' (regardless of method): {Quin potius effaris ubi puerum eiusdem agasonem, necatum scilicet, occultaris?} "Tell us instead what you've done with the boy who was driving him. No doubt you've murdered him" [Met. 7: 25]; {Diu denique ac multum mecum ipse deliberavi, an nequissimam facinerosissimamque illam feminam spissis calcibus feriens et mordicus adpetens necare deberem} "So I held long and earnest debate in my mind with regard to that utterly worthless and felonious woman, as to whether to kick her again and again with my hooves, bite her with my teeth, and destroy her" [Met. 3: 26]; {ut, si sexus sequioris edidisset fetum, protinus quo esset editum necaretur} "to kill the infant at once if it chanced to be female" [Met. 10: 23]; {regressoque iam marito natam necatamque nuntiavit} "on her husband's return, announced the birth and death of a girl" [Met. 10: 23]; {atque cuncta fingentem titione candenti inter media femina detruso crudelissimae necavit} "went on to murder her savagely with a burning brand thrust between the thighs" [Met. 10: 24]; {Habebat filiam parvulam de marito, quem nuper necaverat} "She had a baby daughter by the husband she had murdered" [Met. 10: 28]; {nec ad exemplum naccinae truculentiae sulpuris te letali fumo necabo} "I'll not take the fuller's savagery as my model and stifle you with lethal fumes" [Met. 9: 27].
Some examples of {occidere}: {quem nocte ebrius occisum a me calumniabaris} "whom you in your drunken state accused me, slanderously, of murdering" [Met. 1: 17]; {Occisa sum misera} "I'm done for!" [Met. 3: 25]; {Igitur Pontianum fratris sui filium, quem paulo prius occisum a me clamitarat} "and began to charge me with practice of the black art and with the murder of my step-son Pontianus" [Apologia 1: 7]; {quis aequo animo pateretur, si me per haec ueneficii arcesseres, quod ex illis potest homo occidi?} "Who would endure it if you made this a ground for accusing me of being a poisoner, merely because those drugs are capable of killing a man?" [Apologia 32: 8].
Gellius material seems to confirm this hypothesis. The term {necare} means 'to murder / to put to death': {et, si de praemio conveniret, promisit regem venenis necare idque facile esse factu dixit, quoniam filii sui pocula in convivio regi ministrarent} "and asked a reward, promising that if they could come to terms, he would poison the king" [Attic Nights 3: 8]; {qui filium suum, quod contra suum dictum in hostem pugnaverat, securi necavit} "who behaded his son for engaging the enemy contrary to his orders" [Attic Nights 17: 21]; {delati ad populum proditique sunt et, cum de perfidia confessi essent, necati sunt} "they were betrayed and brought to trial before the people, and having confessed their duplicity, were put to death" [Attic Nights 4: 5].
Some of Gellius' examples for {occidere} 'to kill' (especially in battle): {eodem tempore etiam hostem occiderat neque locum in ea pugna reliquerat} "at the same time slain the enemy who threatened him, and had not given ground in that battle" [Attic Nights 5: 6]; {Nam gladiatori composito ad pugnandum pugnae haec proposita sors est aut occidere} "For to a gladiator ready to fight the fortune of battle offers the alternative, either to kill" [Attic Nights 6: 3]; {Nam furem, qui manifesto furto prensus esset, tum demum occidi permiserunt} "For they permitteda thief who was caught in the act to be put to death" [Attic Nights 11: 18].
Megleno Romanian:nek {nec}2
Capidan 1935: 205. Polysemy: 'to choke / to kill / to drown'.
In thedialect of Ţârnareca there is also a word vˈat-ǝm {vátăm} 'to kill' [Capidan 1935: 324].
Distinct from dutǝlčɔs {dutăltšǫs} 'to beat up' ({muraru mi dutăltšì di chi̯utec} "the miller beat me up in a fight" [Capidan 1928: 118]) and spark {sparg} 'damage, break, beat' [Capidan 1935: 271] ({acu mi sparzi, du-ti tu cu mlaznitsili, ca să mi duc cu stęrpili} "You can beat me up, but you will tend milk sheep while I will tend dry sheep" [Capidan 1928: 31]).
Papahagi 1963: 1101; Cunia 2010: 1074-1075; Dalametra 1906: 220-221; Goɫąb 1984: 258. Goes back to the Latin {victimare} 'to offer (an animal) in sacrifice'. The term mˈor-ŭ {mor} 'to die' can be sometimes used in the meaning 'to kill' as well. Cf. {muríţ-ľi Ϟíne} "kill them well"; {a ta boáţe că n'-mi moáre} "your voice which kills me" [Papahagi 1963: 702].
Romanian:a=učˈid-e {a ucide}1
DER 2004: 536; Bolocan et al. 1985: 1530; Gancz 2015. There are two expressions for 'to kill': a=učˈid-e {a ucide} and a=omor-ˈɨ {a omorî}. They are synonyms, but a=učˈid-e is stylistically stronger, cf. {El nu a fost atent când conducea și a omorât un om care traversa} "He did not pay attention when he was driving and he killed a man who was crossing the street" and {Criminalul a ucis victima cu sânge rece} "The murderer killed the victim in cold blood" [Gancz 2015]. We have to treat these words as synonyms. Moldavian: a=učˈid-e {a ucide} 'to kill' [Podiko 1973: 966; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 457].
Dalmatian:dram-ˈwo-r {dramu͡ọr}4
Bartoli translates this verb as 'ammazzare' ('to kill with violence'), but the contexts do not confirm this translation: {ju jai̯ joi̯na járma per dramu͡ọr} 'I have a weapon to kill' [Bartoli 2002: 251]; {lo ju dramút koṅ joi̯na petrúta} "he was killed with a throw of a stone" [Bartoli 2002: 252]. In Dubrovnik in the year 1364 the form {anchidere} 'to kill' is attested [Bartoli 2002: 352].
Friulian:kop-ˈaː {copâ}5
Decorte 2015; Virili 2015. Used for people and animals. Distinct from mač-ˈaː {maçâ} 'to kill', used mostly for people [Virili 2015].
Gardenese Ladin:mac-ˈɛ {mazé}6
There are two expressions for 'to kill' in Forni's dictionary: mac-ˈɛ {mazé} (glossed as 'schlachten, abstechen; ermorden, umbringen' ('to slaughter; to murder, to kill') by Gartner [Gartner 1923: 52]) and kup-ˈɛ {cupé} (glossed as 'abstechen, schlachten; umbringen' by Gartner [Gartner 1923: 45]). According to the contexts provided in Forni's dictionary, the second one seems to be more restricted and means 'to kill by hitting', cf. {l giat à mazà la suricia} "the cat killed the mouse"; {l ie unì mazà cun l tuesse} "he/she was killed with poison"; {mazé cun n colp de pistola} "to kill with a pistol shot"; {mazé n cërf} "to kill a deer"; {mazé na persona} "to kill a person"; {se mazé cun l tuesse} "to kill oneself with poison"; {mazé ju} "to massacre"; {mazé ju duc} "to exterminate"; {cupé n armënt} "to kill cattle"; {cupé zachei de striches} "to beat to death"; {cupé ju} "to massacre". As it seems that mac-ˈɛ better satisfies the GLD specifications, we do not include kup-ˈɛ in the list.
Fassano Ladin:mac-ˈɛ-r {mazèr}6
DILF 2001: 341. As in the Gardenese, there are two expressions for 'to kill' in Fossano: mac-ˈɛr {mazèr} (glossed as 'abbattere, accoppare, ammazzare, eliminare, macellare, sopprimere, uccidere' [DILF 2001: 489]) and kop-ˈɛr {copèr} (glossed as 'abbattere, accoppare, ammazzare, eliminare, macellare, uccidere' [DILF 2001: 407]. There is no possibility to differenciate between them on the DILF material, but we presume that the difference is the same as in Gardenese, so we include only the first word in the list.
Rumantsch Grischun:mǝc-ˈa-r {mazzar}6
Schmid 2015.
Sursilvan Romansh:mǝc-ˈa-r {mazzar}6
Cadruvi 2015; Decurtins 2015.
Surmiran Romansh:mǝc-ˈa-r {mazzar}6
Schmid 2015.
Vallader Romansh:kǝp-ˈa-r {coppar}5
Conrad 2015; Vital 2015.
Lanzo Torinese Piemontese:mas-ˈe {massé}6
Gisolo 2015; Brero 1976: 385.
Barbania Piemontese:mas-ˈe {massé}6
Fiandro 2015; Brero 1976: 385.
Carmagnola Piemontese:mas-ˈe {massé}6
Sanero 2015.
Turinese Piemontese:mas-ˈɛ {massè}6
Davico 2016. Distinct from kup-ˈɛ {copè} 'to murder'.
Vercellese Piemontese:mas-ˈɛ6
Noris 2015.
Bergamo Lombard:köp-ˈa {cöpà}5
Garlini 2015.
Plesio Lombard:mac-ˈa {mazà}6
Selva 2015. Distinct from kup-ˈa {cupà} 'to kill', which is more archaic and colloquial [Selva 2015].
Cf. some examples: {Poi vidi genti accese in foco d'ira // con pietre un giovinetto ancider} "Then saw I people hot in fire of wrath, // with stones a young man slaying" [Purg. 15]; {per non smarrirsi e per non dar di cozzo // in cosa che 'l molesti, o forse ancida} "lest he should wander, or should strike against // aught that may harm or peradventure kill him" [Purg. 16]; {nel quale un cinquecento diece e cinque, // messo di Dio, anciderà la fuia} "within which a Five-hundred, Ten, and Five, // One sent from God, shall slay the thievish woman" [Purg. 33]; {poscia li ancide come antica belva} "thereafter slaughters them like ancient beeves" [Purg. 14]; {'Anciderammi qualunque m'apprende'} "Shall slay me whosoever findeth me!" [Purg. 14]. Only once does it occur in the form u=čːˈid-e-re {uccidere}: {ché questa bestia, per la qual tu gride, // non lascia altrui passar per la sua via, // ma tanto lo 'mpedisce che l'uccide} "because this beast, at which thou criest out, // suffers not any one to pass her way, // but so doth harass him, that she destroys him" [Inf. 1]. The terms a=mːacː-ˈa-re {ammazzare} and a=kːopː-ˈa-re {accoppare} are not attested.
Standard Italian:učːˈid-e-re {uccidere}1
Passerini Tosi 1989: 1881. Distinct from a=mːacː-ˈa-re {ammazzare} 'to kill', which is more affected, from a=kːopː-ˈa-re {accoppare} 'to kill', which is colloquial and less frequent and [Vitali 2015] and from a=sːasːin-ˈa-re {assassinare} 'to murder, to kill' [Passerini Tosi 1989: 126].
Grosseto Italian:a=mːacː-ˈa-re {ammazzare}6
Marcelli 2015. The term učːˈid-e-re {uccidere} 'to kill' is used as well, but it is much less frequent [Marcelli 2015].
Coupier 1995: 1447. Distinct from the obsolete term mat-ˈa {mata} 'to kill' [Coupier 1995: 1447].
Savoyard Franco-Provençal:twaː {twâ}-1
Viret 2013: 2171.
Old French:oc-ˈi-rǝ {ocire}1
EDCT 2014: 762-763. Applied to people and animals. Another term for 'to kill', tü-ˈeː-r {tüer} is more than 10 ten times less frequent (159 versus 15 occurences) [EDCT 2014: 1110-1111]. Distinct from a=fol-ˈeː-r {afoler} 'to harm, to hurt / to kill' [EDCT 2014: 21], from des=fˈey-rǝ {desfaire} 'to kill (a hunted beast)' [EDCT 2014: 320], from des=trɥ-ˈi-rǝ {destruire} 'to ruin, to devastate / to kill, to annihilate (a person, a group of persons)' [EDCT 2014: 336] and from mor-ˈi-r {morir} 'to die', which can be used as a transitive verb 'to kill' with compound tense forms [EDCT 2014: 727-729].
Leplubo 2016. The example is: {L'onme il o tué l'biète} "The man killed a beast". Less frequent is the term eskɔfy-e {éscofier} ({L'onme il o éscofié l'bète} "The man killed a beast") [Leplubo 2016].
Walloon:tuw-e {touwer}9
Mahin 2016. Rifondou: tuw-e {touwer} 'to kill'.
NUMBER:43
WORD:kill
Archaic Latin:
Late Classical Latin:
Megleno Romanian:
Istro Romanian:
Aromanian:
Romanian:a=omor-ˈɨ {a omorî}-1
DER 2004: 536; Bolocan et al. 1985: 1530; Gancz 2015. Borrowed from some Slavic source [Ciorănescu 2015]. Moldavian: a=omor-ˈɨ {a omorî} 'to kill' [Podiko 1973: 966; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 457].
Dalmatian:
Friulian:
Gardenese Ladin:
Fassano Ladin:
Rumantsch Grischun:
Sursilvan Romansh:
Surmiran Romansh:
Vallader Romansh:
Lanzo Torinese Piemontese:
Barbania Piemontese:
Carmagnola Piemontese:
Turinese Piemontese:
Vercellese Piemontese:
Bergamo Lombard:
Plesio Lombard:
Ravennate Romagnol:
Ferrarese Emiliano:
Carpigiano Emiliano:
Reggiano Emiliano:
Rapallo Ligurian:
Genoese Ligurian:
Stella Ligurian:
Venice Venetian:
Primiero Venetian:
Bellunese Venetian:
Old Italian:
Standard Italian:
Grosseto Italian:
Foligno Italian:
Neapolitan:
Logudorese:
Campidanese:
Palermitan Sicilian:
Messinese Sicilian:
Catanian Sicilian:
South-Eastern Sicilian:
Central Catalan:
North-Western Catalan:
Minorcan Catalan:
Castelló de la Plana Catalan:
Valencia Catalan:
Manises Catalan:
Castilian Spanish:
Asturian:
Standard Portuguese:
Galician:
Provençal Occitan:
Savoyard Franco-Provençal:
Old French:
Standard French:
Picard:
Walloon:
NUMBER:44
WORD:knee
Archaic Latin:gˈɛnʊ {genu}1
Some examples are: {tum genu quemque icero ad terram dabo} "then against whomsoever I dart my knee, I shall bring him to the ground" [Capt. 797]; {abite et de via decedite, ne quem in cursu capite aut cubito aut pectore offendam aut genu} "get out of the way, lest I should hurt any person in my speed with my head, or elbow, or breast, or with my knee" [Curc. 281-282]; {lassitudine invaserunt misero in genua flemina} "has the congested blood, from weariness, come down into the knees of poor me" [Epid. 670].
Late Classical Latin:gˈɛnʊ {genu}1
Cf. some examples: {Adsurgit et oppertus paululum pleniorem ripae marginem complicitus in genua adpronat se avidus adfectans poculum} "He rose and after a brief search for a level place at the edge of the bank, he sank down on his knees and bent forward ready to drink" [Met. 1: 19]; {complicitis denique pedibus ac palmulis in alternas digitorum vicissitudines super genua conexis sic grabattum cossim insidens ubertim flebam} "and I sat there hunched on my bed, feet crossed, hands locked together, the fingers clasped across my knees, weeping profusely" [Met. 3: 1].
Megleno Romanian:zinˈukʎ-u {zinúcľu}1
Capidan 1935: 339.
Istro Romanian:žerˈuŋkʎ-u {žerúŋcľu}1
Kovačec 2010; Byhan 1899: 389.
Aromanian:ʒinˈukʎ-u {dzinúcľŭ}1
Papahagi 1963: 434; Cunia 2010: 428-429; Dalametra 1906: 87; Bara et al. 2005: 337; Goɫąb 1984: 261.
The examples are: {i artist portúa el kapu̯át fenta káu̯k i ǧinákli} "The grooms wore coats that reached to their knees" [Bartoli 2002: 232]; {i ǧinakli me dulúa il ǧinu̯ák me dulúa} "my knees hurt, my knee hurts" [Bartoli 2002: 241]. In one folk song, the form denˈakle {denakle} 'knees' of Venetian origin is also attested: {la ni̯éna de dí denakle nói̯de la pregúa dí} "The Virgin Mary on her bare knees prays to God" [Bartoli 2002: 230].
Some examples are: {E un di lor, che mi sembiava lasso, // sedeva e abbracciava le ginocchia} "And one of them, who seemed to me fatigued, // was sitting down, and both his knees embraced" [Purg. 4]; {Come per sostentar solaio o tetto, // per mensola talvolta una figura // si vede giugner le ginocchia al petto} "As to sustain a ceiling or a roof, // in place of corbel, oftentimes a figure // is seen to join its knees unto its breast" [Purg. 10].
Cf. some examples: {LEON. Quot pondo ted esse censes nudum? LIB. Non edepol scio. LEON. Scibam ego te nescire, at pol ego, qui ted expendi, scio} "LEON. When naked, how many pounds do you say you are in weight? LIB. Upon my faith, I don't know. LEON. I know that you don't know; but, i' faith, I who have weighed you do know" [Asin. 299-300]; {Aetatem meam scis?} "Do you know my years?" [Aul. 214].
Distinct from nˈɔsk-ɛ-rɛ {noscere} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted / to recognize', cf. {Non nos novisti?} "don't you know us?" [Mil. 428]; {is me novit} "He knows me" [Capt. 528]; {Hau nosco tuom: bonis tuis rebus meas res inrides malas} "I really don't understand your ways; amid your prosperity you are laughing at my adversity" [Trin. 445-446]; {tonstricem Suram novisti nostram} "You know Syra, the female hair-dresser" [Truc. 405-406].
Late Classical Latin:skˈiː-rɛ {scire}1
Some examples are: {non quidem curiosum sed qui velim scire vel cuncta vel certe plurima} "I'm not inquisitive but I love to know everything, or at least most things" [Met. 1: 2]; {"Unde autem" inquit "scio an convectore illo tuo, cum quo sero devorteras"} "How do I know you haven't slit the throat of that traveler you were with last night" [Met. 1: 15]; {et hercules dicerem quod sciebam} "indeed I'd have told them what I knew" [Met. 7: 26].
Megleno Romanian:šti-w {știu̯}1
Capidan 1935: 286. Distinct from kunˈosk {cunós(c)} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Capidan 1935: 86].
Istro Romanian:šti {ști}1
Kovačec 2010; Byhan 1899: 351. Distinct from konˈošt-e {conóște} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 199; Byhan 1899: 258]. Cf. {i̯o nu l-am conoskut. i̯o n-am știvut čire i̯e} "…whom I did not know. I did not know who he was".
Aromanian:šti-w {știŭ}1
Papahagi 1963: 1012; Cunia 2010: 936-937; Dalametra 1906: 196; Bara et al. 2005: 291; Goɫąb 1984: 252. Distinct from kunˈosk-u {cunóscu} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Papahagi 1963: 330; Cunia 2010: 354-355; Dalametra 1906: 72; Goɫąb 1984: 229].
Romanian:a=štˈi {a ști}1
DER 2004: 540; Bolocan et al. 1985: 442; Gancz 2015. Distinct from a=kunˈo̯ašt-e {a cunoaște} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [DEaLR 2015]. Moldavian: a=štˈi {a ști} 'to know' [Podiko 1973: 264-265; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 145].
Dalmatian:sap-ˈa-r {sapár}2
Some examples are: {no sái̯} "I don't know" [Bartoli 2002: 227]; {ju blái̯ sapár} "I want to know" [Bartoli 2002: 253]; {el véṅ, zapai̯te, me plúk tu͡ọnt} "wine, you know, I like it all" [Bartoli 2002: 242]. Distinct from konwask {konu̯ask} 'I know (a person), I am acquainted' {ju jai̯ kunusùt un zi̯art Vasílič di nàu̯n tune} "I have known a certain Vasilič, Tune by name" [Bartoli 2002: 250].
Friulian:sav-ˈeː {savê}2
Decorte 2015; Virili 2015; Pirona 1871: 348. Distinct from koɲˈɔs-i {cognòsci} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Pirona 1871: 665, 69].
Gardenese Ladin:sav-ˈǝy {savëi}2
Forni 2015; Gartner 1923: 79, 197. Distinct from kunˈǝš-ǝr {cunëscer} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Forni 2015; Gartner 1923: 44, 152].
Fassano Ladin:sa-ˈe-r {saẹr}2
DILF 2001: 271. Distinct from koɲˈoš-er {cognọscer} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [DILF 2001: 73].
Rumantsch Grischun:sǝv-ˈay-r {savair}2
Schmid 2015.
Sursilvan Romansh:sǝv-ˈe-r {saver}2
Cadruvi 2015; Decurtins 2015. Distinct from ǝnkǝnˈuš-ǝr {enconuscher} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Decurtins 2015].
Surmiran Romansh:sǝv-ˈɛk-r {saveir}2
Schmid 2015.
Vallader Romansh:sǝv-ˈay-r {savair}2
Conrad 2015; Vital 2015; Pallioppi & Pallioppi 1895: 636-637. Distinct from kuɲˈwoš-ǝr {cugnuoscher} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Conrad 2015; Pallioppi & Pallioppi 1895: 166]. Cf. {Eu sa cha} "I know, that…" and {Eu cugnuosch la via} "I know the road" [Conrad 2015].
Lanzo Torinese Piemontese:sav-ˈɛy {savèj}2
Gisolo 2015. Distinct from kunˈɔs-e {conòsse} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Gisolo 2015; Brero 1976: 66].
Barbania Piemontese:sav-ˈɛy {savèj}2
Fiandro 2015. Distinct from kunˈɔs-e {conòsse} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Fiandro 2015; Fiandro 1976: 66].
Carmagnola Piemontese:sav-ˈɛy {savej}2
Sanero 2015. Distinct from kunˈɔs-e {conòsse} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted'.
Turinese Piemontese:sav-ˈey {savej}2
Davico 2016. Distinct from kunos-ˈe {conossè} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted'.
Vercellese Piemontese:sav-ˈey2
Noris 2015. Distinct from kuɲˈɔːs-i 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted'.
Bergamo Lombard:sa-ˈi {saì}2
Garlini 2015.
Plesio Lombard:sav-ˈɛ {savè}2
Selva 2015. Distinct from kuɲˈusː {cugnuss} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted'.
Ravennate Romagnol:sav-ˈeː {savēr}2
Ercolani 1960: 365. Distinct from knˈoz-ar {cnóşar} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Ercolani 1960: 97].
Ferrarese Emiliano:sa-ˈɛ-r {saèr}2
Piacentini 2015. Distinct from tɲˈos-ar {tgnóssar} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Piacentini 2015].
Carpigiano Emiliano:sav-ˈe-r {savér}2
Sacchi 2015. Distinct from kɲˈus-er {cgnùser} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Sacchi 2015].
Reggiano Emiliano:sav-ˈɛy-r {savèir}2
Chertein 2015. Distinct from kɲˈɔs-er {cgnòser} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Chertein 2015].
Rapallo Ligurian:sav-ˈey2
Fasce 2015. Distinct from kunuž-ˈe 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted'.
Genoese Ligurian:sav-ˈeː {savê}2
Parodi 2015. Distinct from kunuš-ˈe {cǒnǒsce} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted'.
Stella Ligurian:sav-ˈɛy {savèi}2
Piccone 2015. Distinct from kunˈuš-e {cunùsce} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted'.
Messina 2015; Ornato 2015; La Bua 2015. Distinct from kanˈuš-i-ɾi {canusciri} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Ornato 2015]. Buscemi: sap-ˈi-ɾi {sapiri} 'to know', kanˈuš-i-ɾi {canusciri} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Coccimiglio 2016].
Messinese Sicilian:sap-ˈi-ɾɨ {sapiri}2
Salzano 2015; Stornanti 2015. Distinct from kanˈuš-ɨ-ɾɨ {canusciri} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Sorbello 2015].
Catanian Sicilian:sap-ˈi-ɾi {sapiri}2
Corsaro 2015; Salerno 2015. Distinct from kanˈuš-i-ɾi {canusciri} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Corsaro 2015; La Mattina 2015; Salerno 2015].
South-Eastern Sicilian:sap-ˈi-ɾi {sapiri}2
Leggio 2015; Miccichè 2015.
Central Catalan:saβ-ˈɛ {saber}2
Alòs i Font 2015; EDCC 1993: 256. A more colloquial form is sapiɣ-ˈɛ {sapiguer} 'to know'. Distinct from kunˈɛš-ǝ {conèixer} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Alòs i Font 2015; Llorens 2015; EDCC 1993: 66].
Coupier 1995: 1273. The form sab-ˈe {sabé} is less frequent [Coupier 1995: 1273]. Distinct from kunˈɛys-e {counnèisse} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Coupier 1995: 285].
Savoyard Franco-Provençal:sav-ˈay {savai}2
Viret 2013: 1946-1947. Distinct from ko=ɲˈayt-re {konyaitre} 'to know (a person), to be acquainted' [Viret 2013: 564-565].
Old French:sav-ˈoy-r {savoir}2
EDCT 2014: 1008-1010. Polysemy: 'to have knowledge concerning something, to learn, see, notice something / to have knowledge of the existence of something or somebody / to master (a language), to be able to speak (a language) fluently / to have in one's mind some knowledge about something'. Distinct from ko=nˈoyst-rǝ {conoistre} 'to know somebody, to be aware of somebody's existence / to get to know somebody / to recognize somebody / to notice somebody, to spot somebody among others / to be conscious of somebody's qualities or defects / to have sexual relations with somebody / to perceive, to find out, to notice / to have an idea of something, to know what it is' [EDCT 2014: 228-230].
Standard French:sav-wa-ʁ {savoir}2
Robert-Collins 1989: 364; Rayevskaya 2013: 424. Distinct from kɔ=nɛt-ʁ {connaître} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Robert-Collins 1989: 364; Rayevskaya 2013: 424].
Picard:sav-we-ʁ {savouér}2
Leplubo 2016. Distinct from kɔ=nwɛt {connoète} 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted' [Leplubo 2016].
Walloon:saw-ɛ {sawè} ~ saw-ɛ-ʀ {sawèr}2
Mahin 2016. Rifondou: saw-ɛ {sawè} ~ sav-œ-ʀ {saveur} 'to know'. Distinct from ku=nüʆ {counuche} (Rifondou: ki=nɔʆ {kinoxhe} ~ knɔʆ {cnoxhe}) 'to know (a person) / to be acquainted'.
NUMBER:46
WORD:leaf
Archaic Latin:fˈɔl-ɪ-ũ {folium}1
The examples are: {Involvolum, quae in pampini folio intorta implicat se} "A caterpillar, which twisting about winds itself in the leaf of the vine" [Cist. 729]; {folia nunc cadunt praeut si triduom hoc hic erimus: tum arbores in te cadent} "The leaves are falling now; in comparison with this, if we shall be here for three days, the trees will be tumbling upon you" [Men. 375-376]; {quasi ventus folia aut paniculum tectorium} "just as the wind blows away leaves or the reed-thatched roof" [Mil. 18]; {viscum legioni dedi fundasque; eo praesternebant folia farferi} "I gave birdlime and slings to my troops; beneath it they laid leaves of coltsfoot" [Poen. 477-478]. The term frɔn-s {frons} 'foliage' is not attested in Plautus' texts.
Late Classical Latin:fˈɔl-y-ũ {folium}1
Cf. some examples: {anethi modicum cum lauri foliis immissum rori fontano datur lavacrum et poculum} "Sprinkle a pinch of aniseed on laurel leaves steeped in spring water; use as lotion and potion" [Met. 3: 23]; {Pone tergum deae saxum insurgit in speluncae modum muscis et herbis et foliis et virgultis} "Behind the goddess was a cave in the rock, with moss and grass, and leaves, and bushes" [Met. 2: 4].
Distinct from froːn-s {frons} used as a collective term: {tegumentis frondis vel arboribus latenter abscondimus} "so we fled and hid behind tree-trunks and bushes" [Met. 8: 5]; {Inter medias frondes lapidis Actaeon simulacrum} "Actaeon was represented too, amongst the marble foliage" [Met. 2: 4]; {Mons horridus silvestribusque frondibus umbrosus et in primis altus fuit} "The mountain was rugged, shaded by leafy forests, and very high" [Met. 4: 6]; {percussis frondibus attigui nemoris lanosum aurum reperies, quod passim stirpibus conexis obhaerescit} "just explore the trees in the wood nearby, and you'll find the golden wool clinging here and there to the bent branches" [Met. 6: 12]; {aut spelunca frondibus inumbrata} "no grotto shadowed with foliage, no oak bedecked with horns, no beech garlanded with the skins of beasts" [Florida: 1].
Megleno Romanian:frˈunz-ǝ {frúnză}2
Capidan 1935: 131. Capidan also mentions a word štef {ștef} [Capidan 1935: 285], which occurs in Atlasul lingvistic Român, but not in the texts.
Istro Romanian:fˈoʎ-e {fóľe}1
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 213; Byhan 1899: 217. Weigand also mentions that the Croatism lišt {list} can be used in the meaning 'leaf' [Weigand 1899: 397]. Žejane: pˈän-a {pę́na} [Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 248] with polysemy: 'leaf / feather / peel / fountain pen'.
Aromanian:frˈɨnʒ-ǝ {frîndză}2
Papahagi 1963: 471-472; Cunia 2010: 462-463; Dalametra 1906: 94; Goɫąb 1984: 216. Polysemy: 'leaf of a plant / leaf of paper / newspaper'.
Romanian:ˈfrunz-ǝ {frunză}2
DER 2004: 552; Bolocan et al. 1985: 593; Gancz 2015. Goes back to the Latin {frondia} 'foliage' [Ciorănescu 2015]. Moldavian: ˈfrunz-ǝ {frunză} 'leaf' [Podiko 1973: 357; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 187].
Dalmatian:fˈwaʎ-a {fu̯áľa} ~ fwaʎ {fu̯aľ}1
The example is: {la fu̯áľa…la sau̯ma…ju dikaja su͡ọm…la su͡ọm fero la fu̯aľ ke fero sui̯ járbur} "The leaf. The sau̯ma … I pronounce su͡ọm… the su͡ọm is the leaf on the tree [Bartoli 2002: 239]. Attested in Cubich's vocabulary as {fuaia} 'leaf' [Bartoli 2002: 267].
Friulian:fˈwe-e {fuee}1
Decorte 2015; Virili 2015; Pirona 1871: 672, 176.
Gardenese Ladin:plˈeč-a {plecia}3
In the meaning 'leaf' Gartner mentions the term fˈwey-a {fuᵉa} [Gartner 1923: 33, 125], but in Forni's dictionary fˈwey-a {fueia} is glossed as 'fogliame, foglia' ('leafage, leaf') and Italian {foglia} 'leaf' is translated as plˈeč-a {plecia} [Forni 2015]. Gartner glosses the last word as 'großes Blatt' ('big leaf') [Gartner 1923: 69]. This is possibly a recent replacement, so we include the term plˈeč-a {plecia} in the list.
Some examples are: {Come d'autunno si levan le foglie // l'una appresso de l'altra, fin che 'l ramo} "As in the autumn-time the leaves fall off, // first one and then another, till the branch" [Inf. 3]; {l'albero che vive de la cima // e frutta sempre e mai non perde foglia} "the tree that liveth by its summit, // and aye bears fruit, and never loses leaf" [Par. 18]. Distinct from frˈɔnd-a {fronda} 'frond, leafage': {poi cerchiaro una pianta dispogliata // di foglie e d'altra fronda in ciascun ramo} "then circled they about a tree despoiled // of blooms and other leafage on each bough" [Purg. 32]; {Non fronda verde, ma di color fosco} "Not foliage green, but of a dusky colour" [Inf. 13].
Ballicu 2015; Pintus 2015; Casciu 2006: 189. Domus de Maria: fˈɔlː-a {folla} 'leaf' [Fadda 2015].
Palermitan Sicilian:fˈwɔȡː-a {fuogghia}1
Messina 2015; Ornato 2015. There are two terms for 'leaf' in Palermo Sicilian: fˈwɔȡː-a {fuogghia} and pˈampin-a {pampina}. According to [Messina 2015; Ornato 2015], they are synonyms. Termini Imerese: fˈɔȡː-a {fogghia} 'leaf' [La Bua 2015]. Buscemi: pˈamːin-a {pammina} 'leaf / wine leaf' [Coccimiglio 2016].
Messinese Sicilian:fˈɔȡː-a {fogghia}1
Salzano 2015; Stornanti 2015; Sorbello 2015.
Catanian Sicilian:fˈɔȡː-a {fogghia}1
Corsaro 2015; La Mattina 2015. Salerno mentions the term pˈampin-a {pampina} 'leaf' [Salerno 2015].
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