Sapir & Golla 2001: 803; Golla 1996: 19; Golla 1970: 229 et passim. Same root as 'to go' q.v. The general meaning of the root is 'to move somewhere [intrans.]' [Golla 1970: 162, 301]. Used with sg. subj. The set =yaː-ʍ (*=yaː-ʍ-i) / =yaː is treated in [Golla 1977: 357] as directional imperfective/perfective, whereas =yaː / =ya-ʔ (< *=yaː-ʔ) is defined as nondirectional imperfective/perfective.
With pl. subj. the verb =tiɬ [light imperf.] / =til < *=tiɬ-i [heavy imperf.] / =teːƛʼ< *=teːɬ-ʔ-i [perf.] is used instead [Sapir & Golla 2001: 750; Golla 1996: 19, 40; Golla 1970: 162].
Mattole:=yaː1
Li 1930: 62 sub No. 44, 66 sub No. 3, 75. The light perfective stem; the heavy perfective stem is =ya-i; the imperfective stem is =yaː-x. Polysemy: 'to go (q.v.) / to come / to go away'. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =tiɬ [imperf.] / =teːʔl (< *=tel-ʔ-i) [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to go away / to fly' [Li 1930: 65 sub No. 9, 88], used with pl. subj.
Bear River dialect: not attested reliably.
Kato:=ya1
Goddard 1912: 60. Paradigm: =ya-š [imperf.] / =ya ~ =ya-i ~ =ya-ʔ [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to go (q.v.) / to come / to go away'. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =tǝɬ [imperf.] / =telʔ (< *=tel-ʔ-i) [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to go away' [Goddard 1912: 69], used with pl. subj. (cf. notes on 'to go').
Taldash Galice:=yaː1
Hoijer 1973: 69; Landar 1977: 294. Paradigm: =ya-š [imperf.] / =yaː [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to go / to come'. This is the generic verb 'to move (intrans.)', used with sg. subj.
See notes on 'to go' for other verbs for 'to move (intrans.)': =taɬ / =teʔɬ (dual. subj.), =kʰat / =kʰaʔ (pl. subj.).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=yu1
Kari 2007: 234.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=yu1
Kari 2007: 234; Boraas 2010: 24.
Inland Tanaina:=yu1
Kari 2007: 234; Wassillie 1979: 24; Tenenbaum 1978: 186.
Iliamna Tanaina:=yu1
Kari 2007: 234.
TFN_NOTES:
The verb =yu in the specific meaning 'to come' is explicitly documented only for Outer Inlet and Inland. In the dictionary [Kari 2007], =yu is quoted as the generic verb 'to go (sg. & dual. subj.)' for all dialects. We assume, however, that =yu is the Common Tanaina verb with polysemy: 'to go (q.v.) / to come', used with sg. & dual. subj., whereas =taɬ [imperf.] / =taƛʼ [perf.] is the Common Tanaina verb with polysemy: 'to go (q.v.) / to come', used with pl. subj.
Central Ahtena:=yaː1
Kari 1990: 422, 500.
Lower Ahtena: =yaː [Kari 1990: 422, 500].
Western Ahtena: =yaː [Kari 1990: 422, 500].
Mentasta Ahtena:=yaː1
Kari 1990: 422, 500.
AHT_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'to go / to come'; used with sg. & dual. subj.
Distinct from =teːɬ [imperf.] / =teːƛʼ [perf.] 'to go / to come / to fly', used with pl. subj. [Kari 1990: 144].
Dogrib:=ƛʰá2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix. Used with sg. & dual. subj. The verb =ƛʰá is only quoted in [Saxon & Siemens 1996] with the meaning 'to go' q.v., but actually the attested examples suggest that =ƛʰá possesses the standard Athapaskan polysemy: 'to go / to come': "You have come (=ƛʰá) here so soon!" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 49], "Because her husband came back (=ƛʰá), she rushed around" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 77], "He came back (=ƛʰá) here" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 85], "She came (=ƛʰá) to see me three times" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 92].
With pl subj., the verb =tè 'to go / to come' is used, cf. the example "Last week you people said you would come here" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 82].
Distinct from the verb =té, which is quoted in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 153] as the basic equivalent for 'to come', but actually seems marginal in this meaning: =té is glossed as 'to be, get to be (situation), happen, occur, go, do, come' in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 3].
North Slavey (Hare):=t=tʼĩ̀3
Rice 1978: 191, 468. There are two verbs found in available examples with the meaning 'to come':
1) =t=tʼĩ̀, polysemy: 'to go / to come', sg., dual., pl. subj.' [Rice 1978: 191, 468]. Cf. the examples: "We came for nothing", "In spring, people go to the bush" [Rice 1978: 191], "I wasn't pleased that he came in late" [Rice 1989: 303], "I don't know why he came" [Rice 1989: 1254].
2) suppletive =tà / =yà, polysemy: 'to go / to come', sg. subj., see notes on 'to go'. Cf. the examples: "s/he came here but s/he didn't stay long" [Rice 1989: 48], "s/he came after us" [Rice 1989: 296], "s/he comes customarily" [Rice 1989: 673], "I hope that he doesn't come" [Rice 1989: 1106].
We have to treat these two verbs as synonyms.
Tanacross:=hàːɬ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 133; Holton 2000: 214, 350. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =hàːɬ [imperf., fut.] / =š̬àh [perf.]. Historically, apparently =hàː-ɬ.
With pl subj., the verb =téɬ [imperf., fut.] / =tèːƛ [perf.] 'to go / to come / to run / to fly' is used [Arnold et al. 2009: 133; Holton 2000: 160, 214, 350].
For the meaning 'to come', cf. some examples: "I'm coming (=hàːɬ) from work" [Arnold et al. 2009: 297], "he came (=š̬àh) from far away" [Arnold et al. 2009: 115], "he came (=š̬àh) from his house" [Arnold et al. 2009: 127], "I came (=š̬àh) back from Tanacross" [Arnold et al. 2009: 274], "that's the way we came (=tèːŁ)" [Arnold et al. 2009: 97], "lots of people came (=tèːƛ) for the potlatch" [Arnold et al. 2009: 171].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=haːɬ1
Milanowski 2009: 43, 119. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =haːɬ [imperf., fut.] / =š̬ʸah [perf.] / =t=taː-k [customary].
With pl subj., the verb =teːɬ [imperf., perf.] / =ta-ɬ [fut.] / =t=ta-k [customary] 'to go / to come' is used [Milanowski 2009: 119].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=yʌ1
Kari 1994: 332, 412; Tuttle 2009: 87; Urschel 2006: 26. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. & dual. subj. Paradigm: =yʌ-y̥ [momentaneous/customary imperf.] / =yʌ [perf.] / =yʌ-ɬ [momentaneous progressive]. Further see notes on 'to go'.
Central Carrier:=ya1
Poser 1998/2013: 654, 1223, 1263; Poser 2011a: 57; Antoine et al. 1974: 302. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Paradigm: =ya [continuous imperf.] / =ya-ʔ [continuous perf.] / =yai-h [customary/momentaneous imperf.] / =ya-ɬ [progressive imperf.]. Further see notes on 'to go'.
Koyukon:=hoː1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 700, 878; Jones 1978: 41; Jones & Kwaraceius 1997: 109. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =hoː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =yoː [momentaneous perf.] / =hoː-ɬ [momentaneous fut.] / =yoː-ʔ [momentaneous opt.] / =hoː [continuative imperf.] / =yoː [continuative perf.] / =hoː-ɬ [continuative fut.] / =hoː-ɬ [continuative opt.]. Further see notes on 'to go'.
Degexit'an:=hoː-ʔ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 2; Chapman 1914: 212. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Suppletive paradigm: =oː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =yoː [momentaneous perf.] / =hoː-ɬ [momentaneous fut.] / =yoː-ʔ [momentaneous opt.] / =hoː-ʔ [continuative imperf.] / =yoː [continuative perf.]. For further notes, see 'to go'.
Sarsi:=yá ~ =yáh1
Li 1930b: 16; Cook 1984: 56. A generic verb of going with polysemy: 'to go / to come', used with sg. subj. Paradigm: =yá(h) [imperf.] / =yā [perf.]. Cf. such examples as "When did you come?" [Cook 1984: 52], etc. Further see notes on 'to go'.
NUMBER:16
WORD:come
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):=tà1
Rice 1978: 311, 415, 505.
Tanacross:=š̬àh1
Perfective stem, sg. subj.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=š̬ʸah1
Perfective stem, sg. subj.
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:=yoː1
Perfective stem, sg. subj.
Degexit'an:=yoː1
Perfective stem, sg. subj.
Sarsi:
NUMBER:16
WORD:come
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):=yà1
Perfective stem.
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:17
WORD:die
Hupa:=tʼeːn1
Golla 1996: 25. According to the same source, the most common expression for 'to die (of human)' is the euphemistic tah-xoːʔ ʔaː-čʼi-ti-yaw 'in-some-way he-did-it' (=yaw < =yah-i), based on the suppletive verb =tʼiŋ (< *=tʼeːn) [light imperf.] / =tʼeːn (< *=tʼeːn-i) [heavy imperf.] / =yah [light perf.] / =yaw [heavy perf.] / =nih [light optative] / =niw [heavy optative] 'to do (so); to happen' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 791, 805; Golla 1996: 26, 43; Golla 1970: 286]. Textual evidence confirms this as the default expression, cf. such examples with perfective =yah / =yaw as: "She made an infusion for (her older sister) who was just about to die" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 309 No. 24], "That night he said, 'I've got a headache!' Before dawn, in the first light, he died" [Golla 1984: 53, 55], "They thought he had been dead for some time" [Golla 1984: 46, 49], "If I should talk the Indians would be no more. They would die" [Goddard 1904: 217, 219], "When they came to the village they were told that a man had died" [Goddard 1904: 175, 178].
Cf. examples for ‘to die’ with the imperfective stem (=tʼiŋ / =tʼeːn): "Despite this, he did not die" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 327 No. 6], "People would never have died but for that" [Goddard 1904: 221, 224], "He took care of the people who died" [Goddard 1904: 346, 349], "but if she does eat them, these eels of mine won't die" [Goddard 1904: 253, 261], "It (= the eels) won't die" [Goddard 1904: 256, 262]. It should be noted that, according to the two latter examples, the expression 'to do it in some way' is applied to animals as well. Cf. examples for ‘to die’ with the optative stem (=nih / =niw): "When someone dies, they bring a board into the house" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 188 No. 1], "When people would die" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 327 No. 2]
A second candidate is the verb =čʼit 'to die; to be tired out, weak from exhaustion' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 743; Golla 1996: 25, 97], which, in the meaning 'to die', is noted by Golla as "direct term; very impolite". In known examples =čʼit is applied preferably to animals, mythological monsters or the waning moon: "It is impossible for us to die" (the enemies of Little Woodpecker say) [Sapir & Golla 2001: 422 No. 146], "It (= the salmon) died at once" [Goddard 1904: 266, 268], "He (= the monster Two-Neck) did not die ... And then he died" [Goddard 1904: 164, 167], "He (= the monster) thought, 'For nothing I will die' ... At that resting place he died" [Goddard 1904: 346, 347, 349], "the waning moon (when its going from full to new)" [Golla 1996: 104]. Clear examples for =čʼit applied to a human being are: "Such a person doesn't die in a good way" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 176 No. 16], "He dies in a bad way" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 179 No. 14], "I fell like I’m going to die" (a woman says) [Sapir & Golla 2001: 223 No. 5-6], "His brother almost died (of fright)" [Goddard 1904: 328, 330].
A third candidate for 'to die' is the verb =čeh (heavy stem: =čeːw < *=čeh-i) 'to crowd, flock; to pile up', noted in [Golla 1996: 25] as "polite term".
The default Hupa expression for 'to die (of human)' is apparently the one with =tʼiŋ / =yah ('to do it in some way').
Mattole:=tiŋʔ3
Li 1930: 87. Originates from *=tinʔ; the heavy stem is =tiːʔn < *=tinʔ-i [Li 1930: 22]. Distinct from =laʔt 'to die' (said of a tree) [Li 1930: 119].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=tǝn3
Goddard 1912: 70. Heavy stem, originating < *=tǝn-i.
Not attested reliably. Cf. =la-l, literally 'to be' used with sg. subj., and =tʼis 'to die, die off (pl. subj.)' in the example "One after another they are dying off (=tʼis) and all of Susitna is gone (=la-l)" [Lovick 2005: 192, ex. 5.25f].
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=ƛan5
Boraas 2010: 46. Attested in the example "He died suddenly".
Inland Tanaina:=qʰi=sil6
Wassillie 1979: 28, 45. Three Inland verbs for 'to die' are attested.
1) =qʰi=sil [Wassillie 1979: 28, 45]. This seems to be the most frequent expression used with human subject. Cf. the following examples: "I am gone (= dying)" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 16], "the husband was gone (= died)" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 17, 18], "his parents died" [Tenenbaum 1976 3: 68], "a person is dead" [Wassillie 1979: 28], vǝ=qʰi=sil-ǝn 'dead person', literally 'one who is gone' [Kari 2007: 73, 99].
2) =yuq [Wassillie 1979: 28, 45]. This seems to be the default expression used with animal subject. Cf. the examples: "dog died" [Wassillie 1979: 28], "chickadee died" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 9], "raven died" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 34], "seal died" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 56].
3) =ƛan [Wassillie 1979: 28]. The only attested example is: "He died" [Wassillie 1979: 28].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
TFN_NOTES:
Reconstruction of the basic Proto-Tanaina verb for 'to die' is not entirely clear, because all three attested verbs are metaphoric "polite" replacements. The stem =qʰi=sil is literally translated as 'to be gone' in the Tanaina sources, although the direct meaning of the root =sil is unclear (the prefix qʰi= expresses 'space/time/event/abstract entity' according to [Tenenbaum 1978: 67]). The verb =yuq actually means 'to happen', cf. [Kari 2007: 342]. Finally, =ƛan looks like a historical development from *=t=la-n, i.e., the verb =la (perf. =la-n) 'to be' [Wassillie 1979: 7] + the d-classifier; cf. the plain root =la- in the Upper Inlet example above.
Out of these them, =yuq could be the most archaic expression, since its causative stem =ɬ=yuq denotes 'to kill' q.v.
Western Ahtena: yeːʔ=tʰ=e=l=cʼet [Kari 1990: 408, 508].
Mentasta Ahtena:yeːʔ=tʰ=e=l=cʼet4
Kari 1990: 408, 508.
AHT_NOTES:
A number of expressions for 'to die' (mostly euphemistic) is listed in [Kari 1990: 408], but it remains unclear which one is the most neutral and frequently used (potential dialectal discrepancies are also untraceable).
Perhaps yeːʔ tʰ=e=l=cʼet 'to die, pass away' can be taken as a basic expression applicable to human beings (sg. subj. only?) [Kari 1990: 408, 508] ← the generic verb =l=cʼet 'animate or compact object moves independently' + the adverb yeːʔ tʰ= 'away' [Kari 1990: 433].
Distinct from the rare verb ta=...=cʰaː-n 'to die (sg. subj.)': "this word seems to be used only occasionally" [Kari 1990: 367, 508] (ta= is an unclear prefix, occurring only in some verbs for 'to die' [Kari 1990: 136]).
Distinct from ta=...=laːq 'to die (pl. subj.)' [Kari 1990: 269, 508] from the suppletive verb =yaːq / =laːq with the generic meaning 'to happen, affect' [Kari 1990: 426]. It should be noted that =yaːq can also be sporadically applied to sg. subj. with the meaning 'to die', lit. 'it happens to him' [Kari 1990: 427].
Dogrib:=wí7
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 32, 157. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =dé 'to die (pl. subj.)', quoted in [Saxon & Siemens n.d.] with the example "We are dying" (missing from [Saxon & Siemens 1996]).
The expressions for 'to kill' q.v. contain the same roots: =wí (sg. obj.) and =té (pl. obj.).
North Slavey (Hare):=wì7
Rice 1978: 294, 388, 478, 496; Hoijer 1956: 222. Paradigm: =wì [imperf.] / =wè [perf.], used with both sg. and pl. subj. [Rice 1989: 792].
Tanacross:=h=tʰẽː8
Arnold et al. 2009: 96; Shinen 1958: 34. Used with sg. subj.
With pl. subj., the verb =ɬ̬àːk 'to die' is used [Arnold et al. 2009: 96].
Both verbs are applicable to humans and animals, although it is noted in [Arnold et al. 2009] that these are rarely used for people due to taboo (i.e., impoliteness). It is likely that more common forms for 'to die' are various euphemistic expressions, but these are not documented.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=h=tʰĩː8
Milanowski 2009: 54, 95, 120. It is unclear whether =h=tʰĩː is applicable to sg. subj. only or to both sg. and pl. subj. Euphemistically derived from the verb =tʰĩː 'to sleep (sg. subj.)' q.v.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=nax9
Kari 1994: 197, 390; Tuttle 2009: 57. Examples are only avilable for sg. subj.
Distinct from =lʌx [imperf.] / =lʌk [perf.] 'to die', applicable to pl. subj. [Kari 1994: 190].
Central Carrier:ta=...=c̪ai10
Poser 1998/2013: 670, 1223, 1262; Poser 2011a: 67. Used with sg. & pl. subj. Paradigm: =c̪a-h [imperf.] / =c̪ai [perf.]. In [Antoine et al. 1974], erroneously transcribed as ta=...=cai, cf. "Many people died during the famine" [Antoine et al. 1974: 73], "he is dying (very near death)" [Antoine et al. 1974: 77], "He understands how a person feels when a relative dies" [Antoine et al. 1974: 222], etc.
Koyukon:=naːχ9
Jetté & Jones 2000: 708, 889; Jones 1978: 48. Literally 'it happens to subj' with the suppletive verb =naːχ [imperf., opt.] / =t=yoːχ [perf.] / =niː-ɬ [fut.] 'to occur, happen' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 708]. Probably this is the basic expression for 'to die', used with sg. human subj.
A second candidate is =l=ƛʰoː-χ [imperf.] / =l=ƛʰoː-n̥ [perf.] 'to die' (sg. subj.) [Jetté & Jones 2000: 582; Jones 1978: 48], but available examples show that it is more commonly applied to non-humans, i.e., to animals and plants.
Distinct from =naː [imperf.] / =noː-n̥ [perf.] 'to die', used with pl. subj. (both humans and non-humans) [Jetté & Jones 2000: 481].
Another equivalent for 'to die', applicable to pl. human subj. is the rare verb =loːχ [imperf.] / =loːq [perf.] with polysemy: 'to become unconscious / to fall asleep / to become paralyzed / to die' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 414].
Degexit'an:=naːχ9
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 36; Chapman 1914: 214. Literally 'it happens to subj' with the suppletive verb =naːχ [imperf., opt.] / =tǝ=yoːq [perf.] / =neː-ɬ [fut.] 'to happen'. Used with both sg. and pl. subj. Cf. some examples: "So he died. His wife put him into the kayak, among fine skins" [Chapman 1914: 126], "He died suddenly", "Lots of them died from the sickness" [Taff et al. 2007].
The second candidate is =tθʰoː-χ / =tθʰoː-n-ʔ 'to die' [Kari 1976: 53; Chapman 1914: 220], but apparently this verb is applied specifically to animals, cf. the available examples: "the dried fish fell on him, and he [the mythical Mouse] died" [Chapman 1914: 206], "dead [of animal] (lit. it's dead)" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 763, 766; Golla 1996: 27; Golla 1964: 117. Polysemy: 'pet animal / dog / horse'. Another designation of 'dog' is the descriptive term noː=kʼʸi=neː=yoːt, literally 'it barks at something' [Golla 1996: 9, 27] from the verb =yoːt (the variant =yoh < =yot#) 'to bark' [Golla 1996: 9]. Golla [Golla 1996: 27] quotes ɬiŋʔ and noː-kʼʸi-neː=yoːt as synonyms in the meaning 'dog', but browsing through Hupa texts in [Goddard 1904; Sapir & Golla 2001; Golla 1984] clearly suggests that ɬiŋʔ is the default designation for 'dog'. Examples for ɬiŋʔ 'dog' are numerous in [Goddard 1904] and [Sapir & Golla 2001] (e.g., "I wish I had a dog to go along with me" [Goddard 1904: 114, 131], "A dog skin blanket was hanging there over the door" [Goddard 1904: 170, 173], "Dogs are not allowed to eat his left-overs" [Sapir & Golla 2001: 191 No. 30]), Golla's examples are: "Don't even let a dog look from there!" [Golla 1984: 32, 34], "dogs never come here" [Golla 1970: 301]. By contrast, no textual examples for noː=kʼʸi=neː=yoːt have been found.
Mattole:naːƛʼˈiː2
Li 1930: 128.
Bear River dialect: naɬʔi ~ neɬʔi with polysemy: 'dog / horse' [Goddard 1929: 306, 315].
Kato:possr=loː3
Goddard 1912: 23. Browsing through [Goddard 1909] suggests that possr=loː or possr=loː-c (with the diminutive suffix [Goddard 1912: 27]) are the default expressions for 'dog', although there is also an alternative form naɬkiː ~ naɬʔkiː 'dog' [Goddard 1912: 31, 90, 118]. The latter is morphologically unclear, cf. Mattole naːƛʼiː 'dog'. In [Curtis 1924: 202] and [Essene 1942: 86], however, 'dog' is quoted as nati.
Distinct from the word for 'horse': ɬin-čʰo [Curtis 1924: 202], literally 'big pet' with the augmentative suffix -čʰoː [Goddard 1912: 26].
Taldash Galice:ɬĩʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 61; Landar 1977: 294. The possessed form is possr=lĩː-čʼ-eʔ with the old suffix -čʼ. Cf. the term for 'horse': ɬĩʔ-čʰoh [Hoijer 1973: 61], literally 'big dog' (historically 'big pet') with the augmentative suffix -čʰoh, for which see notes on 'big'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ɬi-kʼa1
Kari 2007: 11, 241, 349; Kari 1977: 30.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ɬi-kʼa1
Kari 2007: 11, 241, 349; Kari 1977: 30.
Inland Tanaina:ɬi-kʼa1
Kari 2007: 11, 241, 349; Kari 1977: 30; Wassillie 1979: 29.
Iliamna Tanaina:ɬi-kʼa1
Kari 2007: 11, 241, 349; Kari 1977: 30.
TFN_NOTES:
The possessed form is possr=li-kʼa (all dialects).
The synchronic status of the element -kʼa is unclear, but it appears to be detachable, cf. ɬi-čʼa 'bitch' (all dialects), ɬi-nǝstʼa 'male dog' (all dialects), and especially plain ɬi in the Upper Inlet expression ɬi ʁǝli 'hunting dog', literally 'real dog' [Kari 2007: 11].
Words for ‘horse’ are borrowed: Upper Inlet kuyni, Outer Inlet, Inland, Iliamna kuni [Kari 2007: 11] < Russian konʸ ‘horse, steed’.
Central Ahtena:ɬi-kʼʸeː1
Kari 1990: 280, 510; Kari & Buck 1975: 8; Smelcer 2010: 66.
Western Ahtena: ɬi-kʼʸeː [Kari 1990: 280, 510; Kari & Buck 1975: 8; Smelcer 2010: 66].
Mentasta Ahtena:ɬi-kʼʸeː1
Kari 1990: 280, 510; Kari & Buck 1975: 8; Smelcer 2010: 66.
AHT_NOTES:
The synchronic status of the element -kʼʸeː is unclear, but it appears to be detachable, cf. the plural form ɬi-ʔqʰeːy 'dogs', the incorporated morpheme ɬi= 'dog' and various substantives like ɬi-cʼeː (Mentasta: ɬi-cʼeʔe) 'bitch', ɬi-kʰʸiːɬ 'male dog', etc. [Kari 1990: 280; Smelcer 2010: 66].
Words for ‘horse’ are borrowed: Lower kʸaːnʔ, Central kʸon, Western kʸuːni, Central, Western, Mentasta χoːs [Kari 1990: 179, 186, 220] < Russian konʸ ‘horse, steed’, English hɔːs ‘horse’.
Dogrib:ƛʰĩ́ ~ possr=ɬĩ̀ː1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 100, 158. The initial affricate ƛʰ- in the non-possessed form is strange, although paralleled by some other Athapaskan languages.
Rice 1978: 77, 133; Hoijer 1956: 222. In [Hoijer 1956], we find the 19th c. archaic variant ƛʰĩ (before the spirantization). Possessed form: possr=lĩ̀-éʔ (< *=lĩ-q-eʔ)
Cf. lĩ̀-šò 'horse' [Rice 1978: 78] , literally 'big dog' with the augmentative suffix -šò.
Tanacross:ɬìː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 100; Holton 2000: 342; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 1; McRoy 1973: 1. The specific suffixed stem is used in the possessed form: possr=ɬ̬ǐː-g-ʔ. The plural form is modified with the plural suffix: ɬìː-ʔìn 'dogs' [Arnold et al. 2009: 100; Holton 2000: 157].
In [Shinen 1958: 12], the word for 'dog' is transcribed as ƛʰi.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):ɬiː1
Milanowski 2009: 20, 67. The possessed form is not documented.
Kari 1994: 181, 392; Tuttle 2009: 58. Possessed: possr=li-k-aʔ; the non-possessed form ɬi-k-a was leveled by analogy with the possessed one. In compounds, the suffixless root ɬi- is retained: ɬi-cʼaʔa 'bitch, female dog', ɬi-kʌya 'puppy', etc.
Central Carrier:ɬi1
Poser 1998/2013: 256, 673; Poser 2011a: 70. Possessed: possr=lʌ-k. Plural: ɬi-kʰe. Polysemy: 'dog / horse' in the recent past.
Koyukon:ɬiː-k1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 388, 893; Jones 1978: 50. Polysemy: 'dog / tame animal, pet'. Possessed: possr=liː-k-ǝʔ; the non-possessed form ɬiː-k was leveled by analogy with the possessed one. Plural: ɬiː-qʰaːʔ 'dogs / pets'. In compounds, the suffixless root ɬiː- is retained: ɬiː-cʼaːʔǝ 'bitch, female dog', etc. [Jetté & Jones 2000: 389].
Degexit'an:ɬeː-k1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 5; Chapman 1914: 218. In compounds, the suffixless root ɬeː- is retained: ɬeː-ʼaːʔ 'bitch', ɬeː-qoːy 'puppy' etc. [Kari 1978: 5].
Sarsi:ƛʰī1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 68, 70; Hoijer 1956: 222; Cook 1984: 65. Paradigm: ƛʰī ~ ƛʰí~ ƛʰí-čʼá [sg.] / possr=ƛʰíh-ɒ̀ʔ [sg.] / ƛʰí-kʰá ~ ƛʰí-čʼá-kʰá [pl.] / possr=lí-kʰá ~ possr=ƛʰí-kʰúw-ɒ̀ʔ [pl.]. In [Goddard 1915: 248], the pl. form possr=lí-čʼá-kʰá 'dogs' can also be found. Note the distribution ƛʰ- / -l- retained in Cook's and Goddard's data, leveled in favor of ƛʰ in Hoijer & Joël's glossary.
Suffixed stem ƛʰí-čʼá with polysemy: 'dog / horse'.
NUMBER:19
WORD:drink
Hupa:=naːn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 774; Golla 1996: 29; Golla 1996a: 388; Golla 1970: 147. The imperfective root variants are =naŋ < *=naːn [light] / =naːn < *=naːn-i [heavy], the perfective root variants are =naŋʔ < *=naːn-ʔ [light] / =naʔn < *=naːn-ʔ-i [heavy]. In [Golla 1996], also the reduced light imperfective variant =nuŋ is quoted.
Mattole:=naːn1
Li 1930: 94. This is the heavy imperfective stem, originating from *=naːn-i; the light imperfective stem is =naːh < *=naːn [Li 1930: 21]; the perfective stem is =naːʔn < *=naːn-ʔ-i. Distinct from =xix, glossed as 'to drink (to sip?)' in [Li 1930: 80].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=nan1
Goddard 1912: 65. This is the heavy stem, originating from *=nan-i; the light stem is =naŋ < *=nan.
Kari 2007: 278, 349; Wassillie 1979: 31; Holton et al. 2004: 22.
Iliamna Tanaina:=t=nun1
Kari 2007: 278, 349.
TFN_NOTES:
Distinct from the specific verb =žǝž (all dialects; =yǝy in Upper Inlet) 'to sip, drink (a hot drink)' [Kari 2007: 278].
Central Ahtena:=tʰ=naːn1
Kari 1990: 289, 511.
Lower Ahtena: =tʰ=naːn [Kari 1990: 289, 511].
Western Ahtena: =tʰ=naːn [Kari 1990: 289, 511].
Mentasta Ahtena:=tʰ=nãː1
Kari 1990: 289, 511.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =naːn [imperf.] / =naːn-ʔ [perf.], see the additional forms in [Kari 1990: 681].
Dogrib:=tṍ1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 124, 159.
Distinct from =cʼè 'to drink, sip' [Saxon & Siemens n.d.].
North Slavey (Hare):=tõ̀1
Rice 1978: 422, 497; Hoijer 1956: 222. Originally from *=t=nõ. Polysemy: 'to drink / to overeat'. This is the basic verb for 'to drink' as confirmed by such examples as: "I don't like him to drink", "Drink the tea", "Did you really drink four cups?", "He drank too much" [Rice 1978: 364], "They're not letting me drink water" [Rice 1978: 192], "Do you want to drink tea?" [Rice 1978: 370], "Drink up the juice" [Rice 1978: 386], "I overate" [Rice 1978: 202].
Distinct from =h=tsʼè, which is also glossed as 'to drink' in [Rice 1978: 472, 497], but available examples show that it is normally applicable to tea and nothing else, thus the underlying meaning of =h=tsʼè should be rather 'to sip': "Who drank up my tea?" [Rice 1978: 387], "Do you drink tea?" [Rice 1978: 373], "Who drank up my tea?" [Rice 1978: 387].
Tanacross:=t=nãː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 102; Holton 2000: 175, 349; Shinen 1958: 35. Paradigm: =t=nãː [imperf.] / =t=nã́-ʔ [perf.]. In [Holton 2000: 349], quoted as =t=nàː - a typo.
Jetté & Jones 2000: 492, 894; Jones 1978: 51. Paradigm: =nuːn̥ [durative imperf.] / =nuː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =nuːn-ʔ [perf.].
Distinct from =zǝs 'to sip, drink (hot liquid, alcoholic beverage)' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 737].
Degexit'an:=neːn̥1
Kari 1976: 37; Chapman 1914: 214. Paradigm: =neːn̥ [imperf.] / =neːn-ʔ [perf.] / =neː-ɬ [fut.] / =neː-y̥ [opt.]. In [Taff et al. 2007] it is specified as 'to drink, gulping smth. cold', but browsing through Chapman's text examples suggests that =neːn̥ is retained as the basic verb for 'to drink': "'I will drink some water', said she; and when she drank, she swallowed the spruce-needle" [Chapman 1914: 112], "and asked her for some water. 'There is some', said she, 'out there on the floor. Drink!'" [Chapman 1914: 169], "So he drank the water; and she gave him some food, and he ate it" [Chapman 1914: 169], "Three days he spent there without anything to eat or drink" [Chapman 1914: 178], "Then she reached down a little bowl with some water in it. 'Here', said she, "drink this!" [Chapman 1914: 179].
It is interesting that in the modern language as described in [Taff et al. 2007], the default verb for drinking is =ʐeːʂ [imperf.] / =ʐǝʂ [perf.] which means both 'to drink' and 'to sip' (in [Kari 1976: 68], only its original meaning 'to sip' is quoted). Cf. the examples for =ʐeːʂ 'to drink' from [Taff et al. 2007]: "I drank tea in a cup", "She's drinking tea", "When he was drunk he drowned", "drink, soda pop (lit. what they drink)'.
Sarsi:=tɒ́n-1
Li 1930b: 18; Hoijer 1956: 222. Paradigm: =tɒ́ ~ =tɒ́n- [imperf., perf.], historically < *=t=nɒ́n. In [Hoijer 1956], however, quoted simply as =nɒ́(n-).
NUMBER:20
WORD:dry
Hupa:=cʰaːy1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 735; Golla 1996: 29; Golla 1970: 137, 177 et passim. The light imperfective stem =cʰaːy < *=cʰaːy-i; the perfective stem is =cʰay-ʔ < *=cʰaːy-ʔ with the causative meaning 'to dry (trans.)'. Verbal root 'to be dry'. Widely applicable: stuff (e.g., clothes, wood), food (e.g., salmon), snow.
Mattole:=cʰai1
Li 1930: 107. Intransitive verb 'to be dry'. The transitive counterpart is =cʰai-ʔ 'to dry smth' [Li 1930: 108], which coincides with the optative stem =cʰai-ʔ of the intransitive verb.
Bear River dialect: only the transitive verb =sai(ʔ) 'to dry (smth)' is documented [Goddard 1929: 315].
Kato:=cʰai ~ =sai1
Goddard 1912: 73. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be dry / to dry (trans.)'.
Taldash Galice:=cai1
Hoijer 1973: 70. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be dry / to dry (trans.) / to be bony, emaciated'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=qǝn2
Kari 2007: 63 sub dry wood, 151 sub drought (dry time or area), 282 sub dried meat, 285 sub dry fish bellies; Kari 1977: 78 sub dry wood.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=qǝn2
Kari 2007: xxvii, 63 sub dry wood, 151 sub drought (dry time or area), 282 sub dried meat; Kari 1977: 78 sub dry wood.
Inland Tanaina:=qǝn2
Kari 2007: xxvii, 61 sub dry branches, 63 sub dry wood, 135 sub snowdrift (dry snow), 151 sub drought (dry time or area), 282 sub dried meat, 285 sub dry fish bellies; Kari 1977: 78 sub dry wood; Wassillie 1979: 31.
A second documented Inland verb for 'to be dry, dried out' is =čʼiš [imperf.] / =čʼičʼ [perf.], attested in the examples "It is dried out" [Wassillie 1979: 31], "he threw out some dried caribou flank meat to him: 'This dried up stuff is the only kind there is in here'" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 38], "Your tail will dry up" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 46], "Raven cut off his dried-up foot" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 49]. The difference between the two verbs is unclear; we treat both as synonyms.
Iliamna Tanaina:=qǝn2
Kari 2007: xxvii; Kari 1977: 78 sub dry wood.
TFN_NOTES:
The verbal root =qǝn 'to be dry' can be safely posited as the Proto-Tanaina term for this basic meaning. However, the second verb =čʼiš seems to be Common Tanaina as well, not just Inland, cf. [Kari 2007: 2 sub brown bear that shed its hair, 134 sub snow on top of surface crust].
Central Ahtena:=qan2
Kari 1990: 191, 512.
Lower Ahtena: =qan [Kari 1990: 191, 512].
Western Ahtena: =qan [Kari 1990: 191, 512].
Mentasta Ahtena:=qan2
Kari 1990: 191, 512.
AHT_NOTES:
Verbal root: 'to be dry'. Also functions as the noun-like adjective qan 'dry'.
Dogrib:=kṍ2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26, 117, 127, 160.
There are three Dogrib verbs with the meaning 'to be dry':
1) =kṍ [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26, 117, 127, 160] with polysemy: 'to be dry / to dry (trans.) / to be skinny'. The attested examples are: "The clothes are drying on the line", "My mouth is dry" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26], "Everybody wants to dry a lot of fish for dryfish" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 28], 'dry wood' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 104], "It is protected from drying out" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 109], "She protects it from drying out" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 127].
2) =žà / =šà [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18, 160] with polysemy: 'to be dry / to dry (trans.)'. The found examples are: "The clothes are going to get dry", "powdered (= dry) milk" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18].
3) =čà, glossed as 'to be dried' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 73, 159]. This one is apparently a morphological variant of =žà.
We treat =kṍ and =žà as synonyms.
North Slavey (Hare):=fà1
Rice 1978: 426, 498.
There are two Hare verbs with the meaning 'to dry (intrans.)' (with the h-classifier 'to dry (trans.)'): =fà (< *cʰV) and =kõ̀. Both are widely used and the semantic difference between them is unclear. We have to treat them as synonyms, although the verb =kõ̀ tends to be applicable specifically to meat and fish and thus could be ruled out in future.
Cf. the found examples for intrans. =fà and trans. =h=fà: "The clothes are dry" [Rice 1978: 259], "The clothes dried on the line", "It dried from exposure to the weather" [Rice 1978: 306], "The field dried up" [Rice 1978: 338], "it is dry" [Rice 1989: 456], "I dried the clothes" [Rice 1978: 313], "The creeks are all dried up" [Rice 1978: 391].
Cf. the found examples for intrans. =kõ̀ and trans. =h=kõ̀: "'the string is dry" [Rice 1989: 245], "The fish are drying" [Rice 1978: 219], "My skin is dry", "The fish is dry" [Rice 1978: 256], "The fish are drying" [Rice 1978: 390], "The meat is dried" [Rice 1989: 454], "Dry the meat" [Rice 1978: 365].
Tanacross:n=è=l=kẽy̥2
Arnold et al. 2009: 104; Holton 2000: 349; Shinen 1958: 20.
There are several documented terms for '(to be) dry'. Two of them we prefer to treat as synonyms.
1) The verb =h=kẽy̥ 'to dry (trans.)' / =l=kẽy̥ 'to be dry', which is quoted as the main term for 'dry' in [Arnold et al. 2009: 104; Holton 2000: 349; Shinen 1958: 20]. The adjectival meaning can be expressed either as one of the forms n=è=l=kẽy̥ or t=è=kẽy̥ '(it is) dry' (with the adjectival/gender exponents n= or t= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.]) or as the noun-like adjective kẽy̥. The found examples, however, are not very illustrative: "the woman is drying (=kẽy̥) fish" [Arnold et al. 2009: 104], "dry (kẽy̥) meat" [Arnold et al. 2009: 172], "he is skinny (lit. dry, n=è=l=kẽy̥) because he was sick" [Arnold et al. 2009: 236], "my chin is dry (=kẽy̥) (i.e.: I am thirsty)" [Arnold et al. 2009: 268].
2) The verbal form t=éː=š̬àːk '(it is) dry' [Arnold et al. 2009: 104] with the adjectival/gender exponent t= [Holton 2000: 237 ff.]. Cf. the examples in [Arnold et al. 2009: 104]: "the ground is completely dry", "the moss is really dry", "dried out leaves (in autumn)".
Distinct from a more specific verb =l=tθʰày̥ 'to be drying', applied to clothes, tents, etc. [Arnold et al. 2009: 104].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):kãy̥2
Milanowski 2009: 73. Glossed with polysemy: 'dry / withered / thin'. Apparently this noun-like adjective is the basic expression for 'dry' in Tetlin. Cf. the cognate verb =h=kãy̥ 'to dry (intrans., trans.), air-dry smth.' with the examples "The cups are drying", "She is drying fish" [Milanowski 2009: 95].
A second candidate is the noun-like adjective tθʰay, attested in the example "spruce firewood which is mostly dry" [Milanowski 2009: 27, 86] and the verb =l=tθʰay̥ 'to make dry' [Milanowski 2009: 95, 100].
Northway: kãy̥, glossed with polysemy: 'dry / withered / thin' and the cognate verb =h=kay̥ in the transitive example "Someone is drying dishes" [Milanowski 2007: 7].
Scottie Creek: kãy̥, eː=kãy, t=eː=kãy 'dry', attested in the examples "I am eating dry meat" [John 1997: 42], "dry ground" [John 1997: 42], "dry firewood" [John 1997: 58], "dry branch" [John 1997: 60].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=kʊn̥2
Kari 1994: 116, 394; Tuttle 2009: 63. Verb 'to be dry'. Paradigm: =kʊn̥ [imperf.] / =kʌ-y̥ [customary]. Also functions as the noun-like adjective kʊn̥ 'dry'. Cf. Kari's examples: "dry wood", "dry fish", "dry meat", "dry surface", "cube sugar".
Central Carrier:=ki2
Poser 1998/2013: 684, 1220, 1252; Poser 2011a: 74; Antoine et al. 1974: 306. Verbal stem: 'to be dry'.
Koyukon:=qun̥2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 218, 895; Jones 1978: 52. Verbal stem: 'to be dry'. Paradigm: =qun̥ [neuter imperf.] / =qoː-y̥ [customary imperf.]. Widely applicable, cf. some examples: "The clothes dried", "The king salmon is dry", "place is dry".
Degexit'an:=qǝŋ̥2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 21. Verbal stem: 'to be dry / to dry (trans.)'. Also functions as the noun-like adjective qǝŋ̥ 'dry, dried'. Cf. the examples from [Taff et al. 2007]: "It dried", "My hands are dry (lit. the skin on my hands is dry)", "He's chewing dried meat", "I went for dry wood", "dried apples or other dried fruit (lit. dried ears)".
The second candidate is the verb =ʰǝ, glossed as 'to be dry' in [Kari 1976: 58], but not found in other sources.
Sarsi:=kɒ̀ːn2
Li 1930b: 21; Cook 1984: 159. Verbal stem: 'to be dry'. Cf. Cook's example: "It (wood) is dry".
NUMBER:20
WORD:dry
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:=čʼiš3
Wassillie 1979: 31.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:=žà4
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18, 160. The variant =šà is attested after the suffixal =h=; innovative pronunciation: =zà / =sà.
Li 1930: 132. Surprisingly, specified by Li as 'ear (ear interior)', but no other words for 'ear' are documented in [Li 1930], thus it is likely that possr=čiɣ-eʔ is actually a generic term.
Bear River dialect: possr=čug-eʔ ~ possr=čʰig-e 'ear' [Goddard 1929: 315].
Hoijer 1973: 58; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. In [Landar 1977], transcribed as sʸaːi.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=ci-l-ʔu2
Kari 2007: 89, 349; Kari 1977: 98. Literally 'extending to his hearing' or 'extending his inner ear' with the classificatory verb =ʔu 'to handle a single compact object' [Tenenbaum 1978: 132, 135; Holton et al. 2004: 40; Boraas 2010: 65, 118]. The Upper Inlet incorporated element ci historically means 'inner ear, hearing' (cf. the cognate Degexit'an, Koyukon, Tanacross etc. forms for 'inner ear, hearing'). This is also attested in the synchronic Tanaina expressions for 'inner ear, hearing': Outer Inlet, Inland possr=či-yiqʼ, Upper Inlet possr=ci-qʼ-e [Kari 2007: 89], where -(yi)qʼ is the postposition 'inside, into' (cf. Outer Inlet -(y)iqʼ 'inside, into' [Boraas 2010: 27, 35]).
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=čǝʁ-ʔa1
Kari 2007: 89, 349; Kari 1977: 98.
Inland Tanaina:possr=čǝʁ-a1
Kari 2007: 89, 349; Kari 1977: 98; Wassillie 1979: 32.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=čǝʁ-ʔa1
Kari 2007: 89, 349; Kari 1977: 98.
TFN_NOTES:
The Upper Inlet form is clearly innovative.
Central Ahtena:possr=caʁ-eʔ1
Kari 1990: 167, 513; Kari & Buck 1975: 62; Smelcer 2010: 45.
Western Ahtena: possr=caʁ-eʔ [Kari 1990: 167, 513; Kari & Buck 1975: 62; Smelcer 2010: 45].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=caʁ-aʔ1
Kari 1990: 167, 513; Kari & Buck 1975: 62; Smelcer 2010: 45.
AHT_NOTES:
Distinct from possr=ciː 'hearing, inner ear' [Kari 1990: 167]. The latter form is explained by Kari as a sporadic contraction of caʁ 'ear' + the postposition -yiː 'inside', but such an analysis seems unnecessary.
Dogrib:possr=cèː-mpàː1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 40, 160. Glossed as 'outer ear, ear'. Literally 'edge of cèː' with cèː *'ear' and possr=mpàː 'edge, seam' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 107]. Cf. mpàː in other compounds like, e.g., tĩ́lí-mpàː 'roadside' ← tĩli 'road' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 97], cʼí-mpàː 'sails' ← cʼí 'boat' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 106].
Distinct from possr=сìː, glossed as 'ear, hearing' in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 40, 160]; apparently the meaning 'inner ear, hearing' is implied.
North Slavey (Hare):possr=cí-ʔ2
Rice 1978: 52, 135; Hoijer 1956: 222. The old term =ce- ~ =ca- 'ear' is retained in the compounds cè-lù 'earrings', possr=cà-pár-éʔ ~ possr=cè-pár-éʔ 'earlobe' [Rice 1978: 52]; final -lù is the attributive 'round', a suffixless cognate to the verb =lùl-è 'to be round 3D' q.v. (see [Rice 1989: 244] for South Slavey -lú 'round'); final =par-e is the attributive 'rounded, curved' [Rice 1978: 257, 531].
Tanacross:possr=cǎːɣ-ʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 106; Holton 2000: 342; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 23; McRoy 1973: 8.
Distinct from possr=cìː 'inner ear, hearing' [Arnold et al. 2009: 106; Holton 2000: 344].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=caɣ-ŋʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 13, 69. Final -ŋʔ is the izafet exponent (...ɣŋʔ < *...k-ǝʔ).
Poser 1998/2013: 153, 688; Poser 2011a: 76; Antoine et al. 1974: 22, 306.
Distinct from possr=ceh 'ear as organ of hearing' [Poser 1998/2013: 151, 688].
Koyukon:possr=cǝʁ-ǝʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 169, 896; Jones 1978: 54.
Distinct from possr=cǝ-y ~ possr=ciː-y ~ possr=cǝ-yǝt~ possr=ciː-yǝt 'inner ear, hearing' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 170; Jones 1978: 54]. Final -y ~ -yǝt is the fossilized postposition -yiː ~ -yiːt 'in, inside' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 680].
Degexit'an:possr=caːʁ ~ possr=cǝʁ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 33. The variant possr=cǝʁ is from [Kari 1978].
Distinct from possr=ceː 'inner ear' [Taff et al. 2007], possr=ceː-t 'hearing' [Kari 1978: 33].
Sarsi:possr=cíɣ-ɒ̀ʔ1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 71; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:22
WORD:earth
Hupa:ninʔ ~ neʔn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 778; Golla 1996: 30. Polysemy: 'dirt / earth / ground'. Originates from *ninʔV. Cf. also ninisʼaːn with polysemy 'country, land / world, surface of the earth / mountain' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 778; Golla 1996: 30], probably < *ninʔ-sa-ʔaːn 'ground-lies', according to Golla.
Mattole:
Not documented. The old root ninʔ 'earth' is, however, attested in ne=ʔ=noː=nˈiŋ-kix 'earthquake', formed with the verb =kix 'to shake (intrans.)' [Li 1930: 99].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:neʔ1
Goddard 1912: 20; Curtis 1924: 205. Polysemy: 'soil / land / world'. For the meaning 'soil' cf. examples like "He poured into it [into the canoe] a quantity of soil that they might have a fire in the canoe" [Goddard 1909: 125 No. 13].
Hoijer 1973: 55; Hoijer 1956: 223. Glossed as 'earth, land, country'. The second element -teː is not entirely clear.
Cf. the cognate noun nanʔ-sʼãː 'world, cosmos' [Hoijer 1973: 55], which is an exact match for Hupa ninisʼaːn 'world' (see notes on Hupa 'earth').
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ɬac2
Kari 2007: 144, 358; Kari 1977: 122.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ɬač2
Kari 2007: 144, 358; Kari 1977: 122.
Inland Tanaina:ɬač2
Kari 2007: 144, 358; Kari 1977: 122.
Iliamna Tanaina:ɬač2
Kari 2007: 144, 358; Kari 1977: 122.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'soil, earth / dirt / fine soil, loess / ashes' in all the dialects.
Distinct from ǝɬ=nǝn (Upper Inlet, Outer Inlet, Inland, Seldovia; simplified ǝɬ=ǝn in Iliamna) 'land, earth, ground' [Kari 2007: 136]; the main lexical root is nǝn, attested in various compounds, although initial ǝɬ- is not entirely clear.
Central Ahtena:ɬeːc2
Kari 1990: 275.
Lower Ahtena: ɬeːc [Kari 1990: 275].
Western Ahtena: ɬeːc [Kari 1990: 275].
Mentasta Ahtena:ɬeːc2
Kari 1990: 275.
AHT_NOTES:
An unclear situation, since there are no separate entries 'earth, soil' in the available dictionaries. The noun ɬeːc is documented with the polysemy: 'dirt / dust / gravel / ashes' [Kari 1990: 275], but sporadic examples like "hand me some soil (ɬeːc)!" (the dialectal origin is not documented) [Kari 1990: 363] point out that ɬeːc can also denote 'soil'.
Distinct from nenʔ (all dialects; Mentasta ninʔ) with polysemy: 'earth, ground / land, country' [Kari 1990: 301, 513; Kari & Buck 1975: 81].
Dogrib:ntè1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 86, 161. Innovative pronunciation: tè. Polysemy: 'ground / land / earth / dirt'. For the meaning 'earth', cf. the collocations tèː-čʰĩ̀ː 'wooden cache insulated with earth' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18], tèː-tʰõ̀ː 'wooden cache insulated with earth or moss' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 18].
Distinct from nèkʼé, which is attested in two collocations: tíː nèkʼé 'world, earth' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 19], literally 'this nèkʼé' with demonstrative tíː 'this' q.v.; hážõ̀ː nèkʼé 'world, earth' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 50], literally 'all nèkʼé' with demonstrative hážõ̀ː 'all' q.v.
North Slavey (Hare):nè1
Rice 1978: 82; Hoijer 1956: 222. The possessed from is =nén-éʔ. Polysemy: 'earth (soil) / land / ground / back (anatomic)'. In [Rice 1978], glossed only as 'land, ground'. Cf. the collocation tèrì nénéʔ 'world, earth' [Rice 1978: 47, 135], literally 'this earth'.
Tanacross:nénʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 97, 160, 321; Shinen 1958: 12. Polysemy: 'soil / dirt / ground / land, country'.
Cf. the collocation nǝnʔ-kʰʌkǝt 'the world, the earth' [Kari 1994: 205] with the postposition obj=kʰʌkǝt 'on, upon the surface of obj.' [Kari 1994: 155].
Central Carrier:yʌn1
Poser 1998/2013: 579; Antoine et al. 1974: 283. Polysemy: 'earth, soil / ground / floor'. Cf. some examples: "the soil here is sandy" [Poser 1998/2013: 882], "He is digging up the ground for a garden" [Poser 1998/2013: 579].
Koyukon:nǝnʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 474, 897. Polysemy: 'earth, soil / land, country / ground'.
Degexit'an:ɬaːc2
Taff et al. 2007. Polysemy: 'earth, soil / mud'. Cf. the found examples: "Dig a hole and cover it up with earth" [Taff et al. 2007], "Now, the mess of salmon tails and fins that they had cooked was full of dirt and earth" [Chapman 1914: 175].
Distinct from ŋaːnʔ 'land / world / ground' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 42; Chapman 1914: 216], the variant ŋǝnʔ is used in incorporation.
Sarsi:kù=ƛʼìs3
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 74. Initial ku= is the fossilized indefinite personal possessive [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 66], literally 'somebody's ƛʼis'. Glossed simply as 'earth' by Hoijer & Joël, but apparently with polysemy: 'earth, soil / dirt, mud'. The example for the meaning 'earth, soil' is contained in [Sapir 1923], the tale "Lodge-Boy and Thrown-Away": "He spread earth all around inside the tent". In the creation myth quoted in [Nanagusja 1996b: 153-154], however, ku=ƛʼis is consistently translated as 'mud, dirt' (as opposed to niskʼa 'land', the latter was being created from mud). The same translation 'dirt' is offered for the example in [Cook 1984: 49]: "He threw dirt in his eye".
In [Hoijer 1956: 223], the equivalent nī is offered for the Swadesh item 'earth'; unfortunately, this archaic form is not confirmed by other sources.
Distinct from nìskʼá 'land', attested in the creation myth [Nanagusja 1996b: 153-154] (probably nis-kʼa with the postposition -kʼá 'on' [Cook 1984: 189]; further ni-s-kʼa?). Translation 'land' is confirmed for nìskʼá by the example in [Cook 1984: 71]: 'God', literally "earth he has made".
Distinct from ƛʰɒ̀ːz / possr=ƛʰɒ̀c-ɒ̀ʔ 'soft earth, mud; white clay' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 68].
NUMBER:23
WORD:eat
Hupa:=yaːn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 805; Golla 1996: 30; Golla 1996a: 388; Golla 1970: 154. The imperfective root variants are =yaŋ < *=yan [light] / =yaːn < *=yaːn-i [heavy], the perfective root variants are =yaŋʔ < *=yaːn-ʔ [light] / =yaʔn < *=yaːn-ʔ-i [heavy]. In [Golla 1996], also the reduced root variant =yuŋ [light imperf.] is quoted. Cf. the cognate noun kʼʸi-wi=yul 'what one eats (in general), food' < *=yaːn-ɬ-i [Golla 1996: 37].
Distinct from the ablaut verb =yeː ~ =yeh [imperf.] / =yaː-n (< *=yaː-n-i) [perf.] ‘to eat up, devour’ [Sapir & Golla 2001: 805, 806, 820; Golla 1996: 25]. The basic verb =yaːn ‘to eat’ looks like a result of generalization of the perfective stem of the aforementioned verb ‘to devour’.
Mattole:=yaːn1
Li 1930: 77. The imperfective root variants are =yaŋ < *=yaːn [light] / =yaːn < *=yaːn-i [heavy], the perfective root variants are =yaŋʔ < *=yaːn-ʔ [light] / =yaːʔn < *=yaːn-ʔ-i [heavy], see [Li 1930: 21 f.].
Distinct from the ablaut verb =yeː [imperf.] / =yaːh (< *=yaː-n) [light perf.] / =yaː-n (< *=yaː-n-i) [heavy perf.] with polysemy 'to eat (clean) up / to win (in gambling)' [Li 1930: 77].
Goddard 1912: 61. The imperfective root variants are =yaŋ < *=yaːn [light] / =yan < *=yaːn-i [heavy], the perfective root variant is =yanʔ < *=yaːn-ʔ-i [heavy].
Taldash Galice:=yãː1
Hoijer 1973: 69; Hoijer 1966: 326. Paradigm: =yãː [imperf.] / =yã-ʔ [perf.]. Also attested in a textual passage: "I used to drink human blood early in the morning, and (only) then I would eat (čʼa=š=yãː) well" [Jacobs 1968: 184 No. 11]. In [Hoijer 1956: 223], the basic verb for 'to eat' is erroneously quoted as =ya.
There is actually a second verb for 'to eat' in [Hoijer 1973: 68]: =kʰat [imperf.] / =kʰaʔ (< *=kʰat-ʔ) [perf.]. Both =yãː and =kʰat are quoted by Hoijer without semantic specifications and comments, but since =kʰat is only attested in [Hoijer 1973], it is likely that =kʰat is a more marginal or semantically specific word, and, therefore, cannot be considered a full-fledged synonym of the basic verb =yãː.
Distinct from the specific verb =kaʔs 'to eat grass-like food (e.g., spinach); to graze (intrans.)' [Hoijer 1973: 67].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:=l=qʰat2
Kari 2007: 278, 349.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:=l=qʰat2
Kari 2007: 278, 349.
Inland Tanaina:=l=qʰat2
Kari 2007: 278, 349; Wassillie 1979: 32; Holton et al. 2004: 23.
Iliamna Tanaina:=l=qʰat2
Kari 2007: 278, 349.
TFN_NOTES:
Paradigm: =l=qʰat [imperf.] / =l=qʰǝtʼ [perf.] in all the dialects; used with sg. obj. Distinct from =l=taɬ [imperf.] / =l=taƛʼ [perf.] (all dialects) 'to eat (pl. obj.)' [Kari 2007: 278, 329].
It is suspected in [Kari 1996: 60] that =l=qʰat / =l=qʰǝtʼ 'to eat' originates from the verb 'to slip, slide'. Such a solution seems likely, since the cognate Ahtena verb =l=qeːt / =l=qetʼ 'to slip, slide' can also mean 'choke on obj (food), swallow, gulp obj in chunks', thus the Proto-Tanaina development should be 'to slip > to gulp > to eat'. It must be noted, however, that the paradigms of the two synchronic Tanaina verbs do not fully coincide: =l=qʰǝt [imperf.] / =l=qʰǝtʼ [perf.] 'to slip, slide' (cf. the Inland perfective form =l=qʰǝtʼ in [Wassillie 1979: 90], whereas the imperfective form =l=qʰǝt is contained in the expression for 'pocket knife', lit. 'one that slips into slot' [Kari 2007: 194]).
Western Ahtena: =yaːn ~ =t=aːn [Kari 1990: 429, 513].
Mentasta Ahtena:=yãː ~ =t=ãː1
Kari 1990: 429, 513.
AHT_NOTES:
Paradigm: =(y)aːn [imperf.] / =(y)aːn-ʔ [perf.], see the additional forms in [Kari 1990: 680].
Dogrib:=ʔà3
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 123, 161. The system of Dogrib verbs of eating is complicated and not all of its details are clear. Based on attested examples, it may be concluded that =ʔà is the basic verb for 'to eat'. Subj. = sg. only(?), human/animal; obj. = any(?). Cf. especially the indefinite context "What are you eating?" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 123], and also the following examples: "Take two pills a day", "He eats donuts (by dunking them) in tea" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 75], "Obviously the dog ate it" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 85], "He is eating it all", "I ate all the bread" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 118], "The boy took the meat but he didn't eat it" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 123].
There are two other verbs, glossed as 'to have a meal, eat' by Saxon & Siemens:
1) =tʰĩ́ [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 92, 161], subj. = sg. & dual., human only(?). The examples are: "Eat!" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: iv], "Eat and then you may play" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 38], "Because I'm taking pills I can't eat", "I am able to eat" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 49], "They are thankful because they have meat to eat" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 92], "I've already eaten" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 122], and especially "Because you were eating delicious meat,..." [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 131].
2) =žé (innovative pronunciation =zé) [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 92, 161], subj. = pl., human only(?). The examples are: "There they cook meat and eat" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 39], "Lots of people are eating", "Are you going to eat?" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 92].
As may be seen from the examples, =tʰĩ́ and =žé are normally used as intransitive verbs; the most obvious counterexample where transitive use is attested is "Because you were eating (=tʰĩ́) delicious meat,...". It is possible that the Dogrib system is quadruple: transitive sg. =ʔà / transitive pl. ? / intransitive sg./dual. =tʰĩ́ / intransitive pl. =žé. It must be noted that it is unclear from the available sources which verb is used in the transitive function with pl. (and dual.) subj.
We prefer to treat transitive =ʔà and intransitive =tʰĩ́ as synonyms.
There are also several additional verbs of eating with more specific meanings:
1) =tè 'to eat', subj. = any; obj. = pl. [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 124, 161]. The examples: "We are eating crackers" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 16], "My mother eats any kind of berries at all" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 51], "In summer time bears eat berries of any kind" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 99], "Lots of people take medicine when their throats are sore", "I'm eating raisins" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 124]
3) =kʼá 'to eat', obj. = meat, orange, etc. (i.e., juicy food?) [Saxon & Siemens n.d.]; missing from [Saxon & Siemens 1996]. The example: "She is going to eat it".
North Slavey (Hare):=t=tʰĩ̀4
Rice 1978: 333, 463, 499.
The basic Hare verbs for 'to eat' are =t=tʰĩ̀, used with sg. & dual. subj. [Rice 1978: 333, 463], and =l=yiè with pl. subj. [Rice 1978: 333, 482].
Cf. numerous examples for sg. & dual. =t=tʰĩ̀: "He ran home to eat" [Rice 1978: 188], "I'm eating fish", "I ate again", "He's noisy when he eats", "We had already started to eat when they came in" [Rice 1978: 333], "He keeps me from eating" [Rice 1978: 370], "He eats all the time" [Rice 1978: 564], "I ate some food and it was bad for me" [Rice 1989: 25], "s/he ate berries, meat, and fish" [Rice 1989: 48], "who ate the bread?" [Rice 1989: 257], and so on.
Cf. examples for pl. =l=yiè: "We'll eat soon", "Let's eat" [Rice 1978: 333], "we just finished eating" [Rice 1989: 345].
Besides there is the old verb for eating, =ʔà, used with sg., dual. & pl. subj. It is glossed with polysemy: 'to eat / to chew' in [Rice 1978: 356, 401], but specified as 'to chew / to eat a small meal, snack' in [Rice 1989: 789]. This one is definitely more rarely used than =t=tʰĩ̀. Cf. the found examples for =ʔà: "I got a bad stomach from the food that I ate", "She has to take medicine" [Rice 1978: 356], "they are eating" [Rice 1989: 623], "I am eating (something)" [Rice 1989: 629].
Distinct from =t=tiè 'to eat (individual pieces, one by one)' [Rice 1978: 363, 386, 416], =t=ciè 'to eat up' [Rice 1978: 387, 425].
Tanacross:=ʔáːɬ3
Arnold et al. 2009: 107; Holton 2000: 349; Shinen 1958: 36. Paradigm: =ʔáːɬ [imperf.] / =ʔáːƛ [perf.].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=ʔaːɬ3
Milanowski 2009: 38, 96.
Scottie Creek: =hã̂ː 'to eat' [John 1997: 40], a different root.
The verb =yʌn̥ is glossed simply as 'to eat', whereas =ʔʌɬ is specified as 'to eat, chew' by Kari and 'to eat smth. (chewing)' by Tuttle; actually =ʔʌɬ shows polysemy: 'to eat / to bite' (q.v.). It is stated in [Kari 1994: 339] that =ʔʌɬ is more frequently used than =yʌn̥ for the meaning 'to eat', which is why we prefer to take =ʔʌɬ as the basic verb for 'to eat' (as well as for 'to bite').
Distinct from the specific verb =l=taƛ 'to eat (pl. obj.)' [Kari 1994: 65, 396] (note that =yʌn̥ and =ʔʌɬ are used with both sg. and pl. obj.).
Central Carrier:=ʔaɬ3
Poser 1998/2013: 689, 1218, 1247; Poser 2011a: 77; Antoine et al. 1974: 306. Polysemy: 'to eat / to chew'. Paradigm: =ʔaɬ [imperf.] / =ʔal [perf.] =ʔʌɬ [customary].
Distinct from the baby-talk verb =paʔ 'to eat' [Poser 1998/2013: 689, 1249].
Koyukon:=hoːn̥ ~ =t=oːn̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 285, 897; Jones 1978: 54. Paradigm: =(h)oːn̥ [durative imperf.] / =(h)iː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =(h)oːn-ʔ [perf.]. Perhaps normally used with sg. obj.
Distinct from =l=taːɬ [imperf.] / =l=taːƛ [perf.] with polysemy: 'to eat (pl. obj.) / eat, graze upon obj. (of animal)' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 121].
Degexit'an:=hoːn̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 3; Chapman 1914: 225. Paradigm: =hoːn̥ [durative imperf.] / =heː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =hoːn-ʔ [perf.] / =heː-ɬ [fut.]. Used with sg. subj. (regardless of the number of objects), cf. some examples: "He's eating breakfast", "I am eating crackers", "I'm eating from a dish", "She is eating", "He's eating fast", "I like to eat fish", "I'll eat it with onions", "Porcupine is sitting on a birch tree eating birch bark", "Raven is eating something" [Taff et al. 2007].
Distinct from =ɬ=noː-n̥ [imperf.] / =ɬ=noː-ʔ [perf.] 'to eat' [Kari 1976: 36], used with sg. subj. (regardless of the numer of obj.), cf. some examples: "they started to eat obj", "they don't eat obj" [Hargus 2000: 5], "we'll eat", "we started to eat" [Hargus 2000: 11], "You guys eat!", "We'll eat later", "We don't eat mushrooms" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:=s=nā5
Li 1930b: 20; Hoijer 1956: 222.
As noted in [Cook 1984: 156] and elsewhere, there are two verbs for 'to eat' in Sarsi, both without reliable etymology:
1) =s=nɒ̄ ~ =s=nɒ́- [imperf.] / =s=nɒ̀-ʔ [perf.] [Li 1930b: 20; Cook 1984: 156; Hoijer 1956: 222]. Cf. some examples: "What (kind) do you eat?" [Cook 1984: 60], "I don't eat that kind" [Cook 1984: 62], "The domestic animals that belong to you, that kind of animal, I eat" [Cook 1984: 65], "Grandfather: Let's sit down and eat" [Nanagusja 1996b: 69].
2) =cʰáʔ ~ =cʰát- [momentaneous imperf.] / =čʰíːž [iterative imperf.] / =cʰàʔ ~ =cʰàt- [perf.] [Li 1930b: 23, 25; Cook 1984: 156]. The iterative form =čʰiž was regularly assimilated < *=cʰiž (further < *=cʰit-ž). Cf. some examples: "He will eat all the food" [Cook 1984: 78], "'Because you do not speak to me, I shall eat it" [Cook 1984: 90], "He's finished eating" [Cook 1984: 157], "Don't eat!" [Cook 1984: 221], "after lunch, have them say: 'I ate well'" [Nanagusja 1996b: 70].
Both verbs are provided by a number of textual instances (above), but the semantic or pragmatic difference between the two is unclear. We treat them as synonyms.
Distinct from =s=tʼàh [imperf.] / =s=tʼàʔ ~ =s=tʼàk- [perf.] 'to eat up, to annihilate' [Li 1930b: 19].
Li 1930: 126. Quoted by Li as ʔi=ɣˈeːx-eʔ with the indefinite possessive pronoun (for which see notes on 'meat').
Bear River dialect: kʼoŋ ~ kʼoŋʔ 'egg' [Goddard 1929: 315].
Kato:possr=weš-iː1
Goddard 1912: 21; Essene 1942: 86.
Taldash Galice:possr=weːs-eʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 57; Hoijer 1956: 223. Quoted in [Hoijer 1973] as weːseʔ without a possessor prefix; probably a typo.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=ʁay-a1
Kari 2007: 39, 349; Kari 1977: 53.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=ʁaž-ʔa1
Kari 2007: 39, 349; Kari 1977: 53. In Nikolai Rezanov's data (1805), 'egg' is quoted as an unclear form possr=ƛʼazƛi [Kari 2007: 39]: apparently an error.
Inland Tanaina:possr=ʁaž-a1
Kari 2007: 39, 349; Kari 1977: 53; Wassillie 1979: 33.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=ʁaž-ʔa1
Kari 2007: 39, 349; Kari 1977: 53.
TFN_NOTES:
Polysemy: 'egg / testicle' in all the dialects (for the latter meaning see [Kari 2007: 93]). Cf. the cognate verb =l=ʁaž 'to be round (3D)' q.v.
Central Ahtena:possr=ʁeːz-eʔ1
Kari 1990: 216, 513; Kari & Buck 1975: 25; Smelcer 2010: 43.
Arnold et al. 2009: 108; Holton 2000: 129, 346; Shinen 1958: 15. Polysemy: 'egg / round object'. Cf. the cognate verb =t=x̬èːs 'to be round 3D' q.v.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=xia-ʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 14, 73. Cf. the cognate verb =t=xia 'to be round' q.v.
Northway: possr=xea-ʔ 'egg' [Milanowski 2007: 7].
Scottie Creek: possr=xìa-ʔ 'egg' [John 1997: 7].
Lower Tanana (Minto):possr=ɣaʐ-aʔ1
Kari 1994: 123, 396. Polysemy: 'egg / testicles'. Cf. the cognate verbs: =t=ɣaʂ 'to nest, sit on nest of eggs', =l=ɣaʂ 'to be round 3D' [Kari 1994: 123].
Central Carrier:possr=ɣez1
Poser 1998/2013: 225, 694; Poser 2011a: 79; Antoine et al. 1974: 24. Polysemy: 'egg / testicles'.
Koyukon:possr=ʁaːz-ǝʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 236, 897; Jones 1978: 55. Cf. the cognate verb =t=ʁǝs 'to be round 3D' q.v.
Degexit'an:possr=ʼaː=θ=ƛoːy2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 14. Verbal form, although structural details are not entirely clear; possibly contains the classificatory verb =lo 'to handle pl. obj.' [Kari 1978: 34].
Sarsi:possr=ɣɒ̀s-ɒ̀ʔ1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 71; Hoijer 1956: 222.
NUMBER:25
WORD:eye
Hupa:possr=naː-ʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 774; Golla 1996: 32. Polysemy: 'eye / large seed, pit'. Synchronically, the root is to be defined as naː (not naːʔ, which should yield phonetic naʔ), as can be seen in some compounds like possr=naː-tʼuŋʔ 'eyelash' etc. [Sapir & Golla 2001: 773; Golla 1964: 112; Golla 1996: 32] and the adverbial forms like possr=naː 'waiting for possr', possr=naː-ɬ 'in the presence of possr' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 773].
Mattole:possr=nˈaːg-eʔ1
Li 1930: 128. Cf. the variant naʔ found in compounds like possr=naʔ-tʰˈoʔ 'tears' [Li 1930: 128] (with tʰoʔ 'water' q.v.), possr=naʔ-cʰˈeʔs 'eyelid' [Li 1930: 131] (with =cʰˈeʔs 'skin' q.v.) and the verbal incorporated morpheme naː- 'referring to the eye' [Li 1930: 58]. The phonetic relationship between the variants in -g- and -ʔ- is not entirely clear.
Bear River dialect: possr=nag-e ~ possr=naɣ-eʔ 'eye' [Goddard 1929: 316].
Kato:possr=naʔ1
Goddard 1912: 22; Curtis 1924: 201.
Taldash Galice:possr=taː-i1
Hoijer 1973: 53; Hoijer 1956: 223. Cf. this root in the compound possr=taː-tʰoː 'tears' (lit. 'eye water' with tʰoː 'water' q.v.) [Landar 1977: 294].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=naʁ-a1
Kari 2007: 88, 349; Kari 1977: 97.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=ǝɬtʰuʁ-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 88, 349; Kari 1977: 97. This form is obscure (so-called "elite replacement"). Kari explains this as possr=ǝɬ=tʰuʁ-ʔa with the literal translation 'liquid that is with him' [Kari 2007: 88] or 'liquid-grease that is with one' [Kari 1996: 61]. Kari may be implying possr=ǝɬ 'with X' (the postposition -ǝɬ 'with') plus the substantive ƛʰǝʁ 'oil, grease' (see notes on 'fat') - the latter morpheme was simplified (ƛʰǝʁ > tʰuʁ). However, we tentatively prefer to leave =ǝɬtʰuʁ- without analysis.
Inland Tanaina:possr=naʁ-a1
Kari 2007: 88, 349; Kari 1977: 97; Wassillie 1979: 34.
Poser 1998/2013: 291, 702; Antoine et al. 1974: 37, 307. Plural: possr=na 'eyes'. The suffix -kʼʌz means 'one member of a natural pair' [Poser 1998/2013: 1269], but it must be noted that the related substantive ʔʌ=kʼʌz̪ 'half' has a different phonetic shape [Poser 1998/2013: 56] (although in [Antoine et al. 1974: 31], this word is quoted as ʔʌ=kʼʌz).
Koyukon:possr=noːʁ-ǝʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 487, 902; Jones 1978: 57. Polysemy: 'eye / month' (i.e., 'moon' as 'eye'?).
Distinct from the more specific and rare term noqʼo 'eye-substance or material' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 487]. Jetté explains the difference between possr=noːʁ-ǝʔ and noqʼo as follows: "The Ten'a use both noːʁǝʔ and noqʼo, to designate the eye, the former for the eye-substance or material, the latter for the eye-place or location".
Degexit'an:possr=naːqʼaː3
Taff et al. 2007. This word is glossed in [Taff et al. 2007] as 'person's eye', i.e., applicable to humans, although instances where possr=naːqʼaː is applied to mythical animals have also been found: "My eye is red" [Taff et al. 2007], "then, squirrel, his eye, began to cry" [Leonard 2007: 55], "his [raven's] eyes turned white" [Chapman 1914: 118]. Cf. the derivative naːqʼaː-t as 'eye socket' [Kari 1978: 33] (final -t is apparently the same locative suffix as Koyukon -t).
The second candidate is possr=maːq, glossed simply as 'eye' in [Kari 1978: 33], but specified as 'something's eye' [Taff et al. 2007], i.e., applicable to animals, cf. the only found example: "Big moose eye".
Additionally, there is an older root for 'eye', naː- and naːχ- ~ noːχ-~ nʊχ-, retained in verbal incorporation or as the first element of nominal compounds, e.g., na=ɬ=ʰǝƛ 'he has his eyes shut' [Taff et al. 2007], nʊχ-tθʼʊq 'glasses (lit. eye dish)' [Taff et al. 2007], possr=naːχ-toː-ʔ 'eye lid' [Kari 1978: 33], possr=naː-yeːd 'eyeball, pupil' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 33] (final -yeːd is apparently the same locative suffix as Koyukon -yǝt), etc. Cf. also the attested examples with possr=naː-yeːd 'eyeball' where it functions as a generic term: "His eyes are bloodshot" [Taff et al. 2007], "They washed him [a raven-like child], and dressed him in a fine parka, and he stared with those big eyes of his" [Chapman 1914: 114].
It seems that the basic term possr=naːqʼaː 'eye' is related to Koyukon noqʼo 'eye-substance or material', representing a semantic innovation in Degexit'an, although the old root naː(χ) is still retained in compounds. It is, however, quite probable that the vocalism of possr=naːqʼaː has been influenced by naː(χ)-. The rare term possr=maːq 'eye (of animal)' seems to be of unclear origin.
Sapir & Golla 2001: 780; Golla 1996: 33. Glossed as 'fat (on smb.'s body)', but the following example proves that =qʼah is more widely applicable: "On looking closer he was surprised to see that her dress was (made) of deer fat" [Goddard 1904: 164, 168]. The corresponding verb =qʼah (< *=qʼaːh) / =qʼaːw (< *=qʼaːh-i) means 'to be fat' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 780; Golla 1996: 33; Golla 1970: 139], but its application is unclear.
Mattole:possr=kʼah1
Li 1930: 130. Glossed simply as 'fat'. Quoted as ʔi=kʼah with the indefinite possessive pronoun ʔi-, for which see notes on 'meat'.
Distinct from kʰeː, which is glossed as 'fat, lard' in [Li 1930: 130] and probably represents a more specific term.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:kʼʷah1
Goddard 1912: 20, 110. Synchronically, used without obligatory possessor prefixes. Historically, a contraction from *kʰʷ=kʼah ‘smb’s/smth’s fat’ (with the fossilized indefinite possessive pronoun kʰʷ-, for which see [Goddard 1912: 21]). Cf. the cognate verb =kʼah (< *=kʼax) / =kʼaɣ (< *=kʼax-i) 'to be fat' [Goddard 1912: 18, 79].
Taldash Galice:čʼaː=kʼah1
Hoijer 1973: 61; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. Initial čʼaː= in Hoijer's transcription is the indefinite possessive pronoun čʼa= [Hoijer 1966: 322] (the vowel lengthening a > aː in čʼaː=kʼah is, however, not clear). Cf. the cognate verb =kʼah 'to be fatty, greasy' [Hoijer 1973: 68].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=qʼǝχ1
Kari 2007: 13, 350; Kari 1977: 95.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=qʼǝχ1
Kari 2007: 13, 350; Kari 1977: 95.
Inland Tanaina:possr=qʼǝχ1
Kari 2007: 13, 350; Kari 1977: 95; Wassillie 1979: 35. The second word quoted in [Wassillie 1979: 35] as a generic term for 'fat' is possr=tiɬkʰiti, for which see notes on Common Tanaina.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=qʼǝχ1
Kari 2007: 13, 350; Kari 1977: 95.
TFN_NOTES:
possr=qʼǝχ is quoted in [Kari 1977; Kari 2007] as the only generic term for 'fat'.
Distinct from (possr)=t=i=ɬ=kʰit-i (all dialects), glossed as 'animal fat; whale, seal blubber' in [Kari 2007: 12], literally 'a handled food object' from the classificatory verb =ɬ=kʰit 'to handle a sticky object, esp. food' (on =ɬ=kʰit see [Tenenbaum 1978: 140; Holton et al. 2004: 40] for Inland, [Boraas 2010: 118] for Outer Inlet) plus the gender prefix -t- plus the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 144]. Cf. with similar structure: čʼ=ta=l=kʰit-i (all dialects) 'stored food, food for future use' [Kari 2007: 277].
Distinct from the terms for 'oil, grease' = ƛʰǝʁ (all dialects) and additionally Upper Inlet χa [Kari 2007: 278].
Central Ahtena:possr=qʼaχ1
Kari 1990: 252, 518; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
Western Ahtena: possr=qʼaχ [Kari 1990: 252, 518; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=qʼaχ1
Kari 1990: 252, 518; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
AHT_NOTES:
Cf. the cognate verb =l=qʼaχ 'to be fat (especially of game animals)' [Kari 1990: 252].
Distinct from ƛʰaʁ 'oil, lard, solid fat, tallow, grease' [Kari 1990: 353] and possr=kʰʸaːc-eʔ 'rendered fat' [Kari 1990: 111] (both terms in all dialects).
Dogrib:possr=kʼá1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 30, 43, 164. Glossed as 'fat, body fat' with the example "My mother is going to keep the fat to make lard"; applicable to both animals and humans. Cf. the cognate verb =kʼá 'to be fat' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 69].
Distinct from possr=ƛʰéh, glossed as 'lard, grease, oil, gasoline, fuel, ointment' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 100].
Arnold et al. 2009: 115; Holton 2000: 343; Shinen 1958: 15. Glossed as 'fat (food)'. The weakening of the final fricative -x > -h is irregular. The verb =l=kʼàːx 'to be fat' (applicable to humans) is based on this noun.
Distinct from čʼè=čʰáːʒ-ʔ 'rendered fat' [Arnold et al. 2009: 115; Holton 2000: 343] (initial čʼè= is the indefinite possessive pronoun).
Distinct from xéː, glossed as 'grease, lard' in [Arnold et al. 2009: 137].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=kʼah1
Milanowski 2009: 14, 74. Cf. the cognate verb =l=kʼaː 'to be fat' [Milanowski 2009: 45].
Distinct from xey, glossed as 'lard, grease, oil' in [Milanowski 2009: 28].
A difficult case with two candidates for the slot:
1) possr=kʼʊx, glossed simply as 'fat' [Kari 1994: 171, 401] without semantic specification and textual examples; cf. the cognate verb =l=kʼʌx 'to be fat' [Kari 1994: 171].
2) xa, possr=ɣa-ʔ, glossed as 'grease, lard' in [Kari 1994: 122] and 'fat, grease' in [Tuttle 2009: 73]. This term is more widely used, judging by data in [Kari 1994; Tuttle 2009], cf. the example: "They eat bear fat with crackers, dry meat". The cognate verb is =ɬ=ɣa 'to be greasy' [Kari 1994: 122].
We have to treat possr=kʼʊx and xa as synonyms.
Distinct from more specific terms: possr=cʰʌyu-ʔ 'abdominal fat, abdominal lining' [Kari 1994: 48, 341, 401] (probably derived from possr=cʰʌn̥ 'viscera, abdomen' with unclear -yu), possr=a-nʌƛ 'fat around heart, pericardium' [Kari 1994: 97, 401; Tuttle 2009: 73] (< a- 'heart', nʌƛ *'sack'), possr=tʰul-kʰac-aʔ 'fat in stomach' [Kari 1994: 152, 401] (morphologically unclear).
Central Carrier:possr=kʼo1
Poser 1998/2013: 219, 706; Poser 2011a: 84; Antoine et al. 1974: 30, 308. Cf. Antoine et al.'s example: "When we prepare meat (drying and smoking) we fry the fat (=kʼo) for its grease (=ɣe)". Cf. the cognate verb =l=kʼa ~ =ɬ=kʼa 'to be fat' [Poser 1998/2013: 706, 1221, 1256; Antoine et al. 1974: 308] (as in the example "He is fat").
Distinct from xe ~ possr=ɣe-(ʔ) 'lard, grease, oil' [Poser 1998/2013: 224; Antoine et al. 1974: 124]. Cf. the above example with 'fat' plus "He fries with grease only", "He treats his boots with oil" [Antoine et al. 1974: 124].
Koyukon:possr=qʼoχ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 368, 904; Jones 1978: 59. Glossed as 'fat, suet, tallow'. Cf. the cognate verb =l=qʼoχ 'to be fat (of animal, meat)' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 368].
Degexit'an:possr=qʼʊχ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 32; Chapman 1914: 230. Cf. some examples: "I make ice cream with moose fat" [Taff et al. 2007], "And when it was day, she brought in her fine parka, the clean one, the best she had. Deer-fat too, and berries, she brought in" 108, "They did not sleep, for filling him up with deer-fat" [Chapman 1914: 114], "Below the place, deer-bones had been thrown over the bank. Below the bones there was a great quantity of fat" [Chapman 1914: 119]. Cf. the cognate verb =qʼʊχ 'to be fat' [Kari 1976: 44; Chapman 1914: 230].
Sarsi:possr=kʼā1
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69. Cf. the example: "Then all wood he put on the fire. The old man said, 'All meat fat even cook'. Then all was cooked" [Goddard 1915: 251].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 743; Golla 1996: 33; Golla 1964: 114. Polysemy: 'feather / wing / fin'. Cf. also a different descriptive term possr=cʼi-s-kʸeː-ʔ 'fine feathers, down' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 753; Golla 1996: 33] from the bound verbal root =s=kʸe 'to be fuzzy'(?) [Sapir & Golla 2001: 752].
Mattole:tʼa-ʔ2
Li 1930: 128. Synchronically, should be analyzed as =tʼaː-ʔ (where the final glottal-stop is the old izafet exponent) rather than =tʼaʔ: cf. the cognate verb =tʼaː 'to feather an arrow' [Li 1930: 91].
Goddard 1912: 20, 100. Used without obligatory possessor prefixes. Cf. the cognate verb =tʼa 'to feather an arrow' [Goddard 1912: 82, 100].
Taldash Galice:possr=tʼa-iʔ2
Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. It must be noted that in [Hoijer 1973: 55], there are such forms as tʼalkai 'tail or wing feather' and suffixed tʼalkay-ah 'short body feathers', which actually represent the collocation tʼa-lkai 'white feather' (with ɬ=kai 'white' q.v.).
Cf. the cognate verb =tʼah 'to feather an arrow' [Hoijer 1973: 66].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=tʼu2
Kari 2007: 39, 350; Kari 1977: 52.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=tʼu2
Kari 2007: 39, 350; Kari 1977: 52.
Inland Tanaina:possr=tʼu2
Kari 2007: 39, 350; Kari 1977: 52; Wassillie 1979: 35.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=tʼu2
Kari 2007: 39, 350; Kari 1977: 52.
TFN_NOTES:
There is no generic term for 'feather' in Tanaina. possr=tʼu is specified by Kari as 'long feathers, wing or tail feather, quill'.
Differently in [Arnold et al. 2009: 116], where the possessed form possr=tʼã̌ː-ʔ 'feather' is quoted - in fact, with polysemy: 'leaf / feather'. The same form possr=tʼãː-ʔ is also attested in [Brean & Milanowski 1979: 5] with the gloss 'wing' (it should be noted that the actual Tanacross term for 'wing' is possr=ìn=cʼěn-ʔ [Arnold et al. 2009: 295; Holton 2000: 348]). Apparently, the old term tʼàː 'feather' is currently being superseded with possr=tʼã̌ː-ʔ 'leaf'. We treat both terms as synonyms.
Distinct from čʰùy̥ 'down' [Arnold et al. 2009: 116; Holton 2000: 343; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 5; McRoy 1973: 4].
Kari 1994: 256, 402; Tuttle 2009: 75. Possessed: possr=tʼʌ-ʔ. Glossed as 'feather, wing or tail feather'.
Distinct from collective possr=ɣʌ-ʔ with polysemy: 'hair / fur / feathers' [Kari 1994: 129].
Distinct from čʰutθ 'down feathers' [Kari 1994: 50], čʼǝ=čʰǝs-ka-ʔ 'down feathers' [Kari 1994: 46] (čʼǝ= is the indefinite possessive pronoun, -ka is a nominal suffix [Kari 1994: 106]).
Central Carrier:possr=tʼa ~ possr=tʼa-ʔ2
Poser 1998/2013: 474, 707; Poser 2011a: 84. Meaning specifically 'wing feather' with polysemy: 'wing feather / wing' (in [Antoine et al. 1974: 44] only as 'wing').
Distinct from c̪ʼʌz̪ 'breast feathers, down' [Poser 1998/2013: 510] (in [Antoine et al. 1974: 238, 308] this word is quoted as a generic term for 'feather').
Koyukon:tʼoː2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 552, 904; Jones 1978: 59. Meaning specifically 'quill, large feather, wing or tail feather'. Possessed: possr=tʼoː-ʔ ~ possr=tʼoːnʔ, the latter form possr=tʼoːnʔ with polysemy: 'feather / leaf'.
Distinct from possr=kʰuːƛ-ǝʔ 'small feathers, down feathers; fluffy, soft material' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 305].
Degexit'an:possr=tθʼǝθ-kǝ4
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 14. Cf. the examples: "Dance fans are made with swan feathers" [Taff et al. 2007], "I will tie a feather to his hair" [Chapman 1914: 107]. Morphologically unclear, cf. the verb =tθʼǝθ 'to caulk, chink'; final -kǝ may be the same as the desemanticized nominal suffix -kǝ in Koyukon.
'Down, soft feathers' is expressed by the collocation possr=tθʼǝθ-kǝ kʰeːdᶞ [Taff et al. 2007] with kʰeːdð 'soft', or simply as possr=kʰeːdð [Kari 1978: 14].
Distinct from the more specific terms possr=tʼoː-ʔ 'large feather' [Kari 1978: 14].
Sarsi:tʼaɣ- ~ tʼɒɣ-2
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 67; Hoijer 1956: 222; Nanagusja 1996b: 117, 121. Paradigm: tʼáh ~ tʼɒh / possr=tʼáɣ-ɒ̀ʔ ~ possr=tʼɒɣ-a (forms in ɒ are from [Nanagusja 1996b]). Polysemy: 'feather / wing'. Cf. such examples as "has wings, then plucks a feather" [Nanagusja 1996b: 148], "Hawk feathers are tied on the sword handle" [Goddard 1915: 207].
Distinct from possr=cʰús-ɒ̀ʔ which is glossed as 'feather' in [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 71], but apparently this word is to be read possr=cʼús-ɒ̀ʔ 'soft feathers, down' as follows from the transcription and translation in [Goddard 1915: 215].
NUMBER:27
WORD:feather
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:possr=tʼã̌ː-ʔ3
Arnold et al. 2009: 116.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:possr=tʼoːnʔ3
Jetté & Jones 2000: 552.
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
NUMBER:28
WORD:fire
Hupa:xoŋʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 803; Golla 1996: 35.
Mattole:kʰoŋʔ1
Li 1930: 130. Cf. the cognate verb =kʰoŋʔ 'to sit down by the fire to warm one's self' [Li 1930: 105].
Bear River dialect: kʰoŋʔ ~ kʰonʔ 'fire' [Goddard 1929: 316].
Kato:kʰʷoːŋʔ1
Goddard 1912: 20; Curtis 1924: 205.
Taldash Galice:kʰʷanʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 57; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. Cf. the cognate verb =kʰʷanʔ 'to warm oneself at the fire' [Hoijer 1973: 68].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:qʰǝn1
Kari 2007: 248, 350; Kari 1977: 131.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:tazʔi2
Kari 2007: 248, 350; Kari 1977: 131.
Inland Tanaina:tazʔi2
Kari 2007: 248, 350; Kari 1977: 131; Wassillie 1979: 38.
Iliamna Tanaina:tazʔi2
Kari 2007: 248, 350; Kari 1977: 131.
TFN_NOTES:
The old root for 'fire' is still in use in Upper Inlet (qʰǝn). In the other dialects, it has been replaced by the obscure form tazʔi (so-called "elite replacement"). Inherited qʰǝn 'fire', however, is still retained in various compounds such as, e.g., qʰǝn šil-a 'flame' (all dialects), lit. 'lightning of fire' [Kari 2007: 248], nu-qʰǝn-čʼ-tu-ɬ-tʼuɬ-i (all dialects) 'torch', lit. 'fire that we carry around' [Kari 2007: 249], and generally as the verbal incorporated element -qʰǝn- 'fire, sparks, heat, burn' [Tenenbaum 1978: 170; Boraas 2010: 126].
Distinct from the specific and morphologically unclear term yusti (all dialects), glossed as 'fire, open fire, fireplace, outdoor hearth' [Kari 2007: 248]. Another case of "elite replacement".
Central Ahtena:qʰõʔ1
Kari 1990: 244, 520; Kari & Buck 1975: 97; Smelcer 2010: 67.