Sapir & Golla 2001: 767; Golla 1996: 35. Originates from *ɬoːqʼi (without vowel shortening in the resulting form). Possessed form: possr=loːqʼ-eʔ. Polysemy: 'fish / salmon'. Cf. also the descriptive formation tʰohnaːy 'fish, eels, general term for all edible water creatures' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 789; Golla 1996: 35] (probably from tʰo- 'water' q.v. and xi-naːy 'fresh meat' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 775]).
Mattole:ɬoːkʼˈeh1
Li 1930: 133. Glossed as 'fish (salmon)'. Apparently a generic term with polysemy 'fish / salmon' (as in Hupa), cf. Li's translation "The coyote fooled his grandmother. 'I will spear fish (ɬoːkʼˈeh) for you', he said to her; 'I will kill deer for you'" [Li 1930: 139, 150].
Bear River dialect: ɬokʼa ~ ɬokʼe ~ ɬokʼ is only documented with the specific meaning 'salmon' [Goddard 1929: 305].
Kato:tʰo-nai2
Goddard 1912: 28; Goddard 1909: 71 fn. 15; Curtis 1924: 202; Essene 1942: 86. Explicitly explained by Goddard as the generic term for 'fish'. The first element is tʰo 'water' q.v., the second one probably means 'fresh meat', see notes on Hupa.
Distinct from ɬoːkʼ 'steel-head salmon' [Goddard 1912: 19].
Taldash Galice:ɬ=kʰʷay-aː3
Hoijer 1973: 57. Glossed by Hoijer as 'trout; all fish except salmon'. A nominalized verb form from the root =kʰʷay (e.g., a color designation); final -aː can be the relative enclitic -a 'one who' [Hoijer 1966: 322], although the vowel length is unclear.
On the contrary, in [Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294], 'fish' is quoted as ɬoːkʼeː (inaccurately transcribed by Landar as ɬoːkʰe), which only means specifically 'salmon' according to [Hoijer 1973: 62]. We treat ɬoːkʼeː as a synonym for 'fish'.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:cʰakǝla ~ sakǝla4
Kari 2007: 17, 350. The Upper Inlet word cʰǝpay is also quoted as a synonym in [Kari 2007: 17].
Outer Inlet Tanaina:šakǝla4
Kari 2007: 17, 350.
Inland Tanaina:šakǝla4
Kari 2007: 17, 350.
Iliamna Tanaina:šakǝla4
Kari 2007: 17, 350.
Common Tanaina notes:
No generic term for 'fish' in [Kari 1977; Wassillie 1979]. In [Kari 2007: 17], two Common Tanaina words, which we treat as synonyms, are glossed as follows: šakǝla / sakǝla 'fish (generic), fish with white meat; trout', ɬiqʼa / ɬuqʼa 'fish; salmon (generic)'. In other sources, such as [Holton et al. 2004: 3, 21; Boraas 2010: 25; Lovick 2005: 49, 86], only ɬiqʼa / ɬuqʼa is translated as the generic 'fish'.
Out of these two, ɬiqʼa represents an old term; šakǝla and cʰǝpay are new formations, whose origin is unclear.
For semantic typology, note Outer Inlet & Inland possr=čakǝla, Upper Inlet possr=cʰǝpay-a 'calf (anatomic)' [Kari 2007: 94]. =čakǝla and šakǝla obviously represent one word (polysemy: 'fish / calf (anatomic)'), although the phonetic alternation č ~ š is unclear.
Western Ahtena: cʰa-peːy [Kari 1990: 103, 371, 520; Kari & Buck 1975: 10].
Mentasta Ahtena:cʰa-peːy5
Kari 1990: 103, 371, 520; Kari & Buck 1975: 10.
Common Ahtena notes:
In [Kari & Buck 1975], cʰa-peːy is quoted as the generic term for 'fish'; in [Kari 1990], glossed with polysemy: 'fish with white flesh (generic term), trout / flesh of the calf of the leg'. No generic term for 'fish' in [Smelcer 2010].
Distinct from ɬuqʼeː 'salmon' (all dialects) [Kari 1990: 282; Kari & Buck 1975: 11; Smelcer 2010: 69].
Dogrib:ɬíwé ~ ɬíé1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 70, 165. Glossed as simple 'fish'.
Kari 2007: 17, 350. The vowel u instead of the expected i is irregular.
Inland Tanaina:ɬiqʼa1
Kari 2007: 17, 350.
Iliamna Tanaina:ɬiqʼa1
Kari 2007: 17, 350.
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
Number:30
Word:fly v.
Hupa:=xis1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 800; Golla 1996: 37. Polysemy: 'to fall down, fall swooping / to fly'. The perfective root variant is =xicʼ < *=xic-ʔ.
The verb =tʼah / =tʼaw (quoted in [Hoijer 1956: 223] as 'to fly') means 'to float about in the air, wave (like a flag), waft about' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 790; Golla 1996: 36].
Mattole:=tʼaɣ2
Li 1930: 91. This is the heavy stem, originating from *=tʼax-i [Li 1930: 23]; the light stem is =tʼah < *=tʼax. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =tiɬ [imperf.] / =teːʔl [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to go away / to fly' [Li 1930: 88], used with pl. subj.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=tʼaɣ2
Goddard 1912: 72. This is the heavy stem, originating from *=tʼax-i; the light stem is =tʼah ~ =tʼa < *=tʼax. Applied to both sg. and pl. subj.
Taldash Galice:=tʼah2
Hoijer 1973: 66; Hoijer 1956: 223. It is unclear whether =tʼah is used with both sg. and pl. subj. or with sg. subj. only.
Distinct from =kas, glossed as 'to fly (away)', pl. subj. [Hoijer 1973: 67].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Inland Tanaina:=čǝχ3
Tenenbaum 1978: 151. Paradigm: =čǝχ [imperf.] / =čaqʼ [perf.], see the data in [Tenenbaum 1978: 151, 224; Lovick 2005: 164 ex. 4.50a, 4.50c]. Apparently, normally applied to sg. subj., although the use with pl. subj. is also attested, see [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 6, 9, 60, 61].
A second Inland verb for 'to fly (sg. subj.)' is =lǝn, see examples in [Tenenbaum 1978: 154, 178, 199; Tenenbaum 1976 1: 19, 20, 50, 52, 54, 71; 2: 1, 2, 3, 14, 38, 58, 66; 3: 46]. It must be noted that Tenenbaum normally glossed =lǝn as 'to fly away' or 'to fly back'. In [Wassillie 1979: 40], =lǝn is quoted for the meanings 'to fly about, across, back'.
A third Inland verb for 'to fly (sg. subj.)' is =tʼǝqʼ [perf.]; this root is quoted in [Holton et al. 2004: 39], but without any textual instances.
A fourth Inland verb for 'to fly (sg. subj.)' could be =l=zǝx, which is glossed as a generic verb for 'to fly (sg. subj.)' in [Kari 2007: 329] and [Wassillie 1979: 40], but according to [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 48, 51, 52; 2: 14; Lovick 2005: 34 ex. 1.29a], =l=zǝx rather shows the more specific meaning 'to fly around'.
Distinct from =tǝɬ [imperf.] / =taƛʼ [perf.] 'to fly (pl. subj.)' [Tenenbaum 1978: 151, 224; Holton et al. 2004: 39; Kari 2007: 329], the same verb as =taɬ [imperf.] / =taƛʼ [perf.] 'to go (pl. subj.)' q.v., thus, with polysemy: 'to go / to fly'.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Common Tanaina notes:
Expressions for 'to fly' are scarcely and inconsistently documented. It must be noted that the most archaic root can be =tʼǝqʼ.
Central Ahtena:=tʼaːχ2
Kari 1990: 343, 523.
Lower Ahtena: =tʼaq [Kari 1990: 343, 523].
Western Ahtena: =tʼaq [Kari 1990: 343, 523].
Mentasta Ahtena:=tʼaːχ2
Kari 1990: 343, 523.
Common Ahtena notes:
Paradigm: =tʼaːχ, =tʼaχ [imperf.] / =tʼaq [perf.] (for the fricativization of the final stops in the imperfective see [Kari 1990: 665; Rice 2003]). Actually, this is a generic verb: 'to move animate or stick-like object quickly' [Kari 1990: 343]. In the meaning 'to fly', used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =teːɬ [imperf.] / =teːƛʼ [perf.] 'to go / to come / to fly', used with pl. subj. [Kari 1990: 145].
Dogrib:=tʼá2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: ix, 61, 166. Used with sg. subj. only?
North Slavey (Hare):=l=wì4
Rice 1978: 258, 477, 502. Used with sg. and subj. This is the default verb for 'to fly (sg.)' as can be seen from numerous examples: "He wants it to fly away" [Rice 1978: 205], "The bird is flying" [Rice 1978: 258], "The airplane is flying around" [Rice 1978: 287], "It doesn't fly anymore" [Rice 1978: 289], "The bird flew away from us", "He'll fly back tomorrow" [Rice 1978: 307], "The bird flew up", "I flew here a while ago" [Rice 1978: 322], "The plane has to circle around" [Rice 1978: 331], "s/he flew to Norman Wells again" [Rice 1989: 352].
With pl. subj., the verb =tiè 'to go / to fly' [Rice 1978: 312, 418, 502] is used. Cf. some examples: "Look at the birds flying" [Rice 1978: 251], "Where are they flying?", "Let's fly back" [Rice 1978: 307], "The birds are flying" [Rice 1978: 312], "The birds will fly up" [Rice 1978: 322], "they are flying downriver" [Rice 1989: 320].
The old verb =t=tʼà 'to fly' [Rice 1978: 259, 465, 502; Hoijer 1956: 222] is used with all numbers, but its attestations are scant and applied to airplane only: "I'm going to fly there", "We'll fly for the meat" [Rice 1978: 259], "airplane (lit. boat that flies around)" [Rice 1989: 171].
Tanacross:=t=tʼàx2
Arnold et al. 2009: 123; Holton 2000: 160, 350. Paradigm: =tʼàx [imperf.] / =tʼèk ~ =tʼàk [perf.]. Used with sg. subj.
With pl subj., the verb =téɬ [imperf., fut.] / =tèːƛ [perf.] 'to go / to come / to run / to fly' is used [Holton 2000: 160].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=tʼah2
Milanowski 2009: 58, 97. Specified as 'to fly (as an airplane does)', no other Tetlin verbs for 'to fly' are documented.
Scottie Creek: =t=tʼah, attested in the example "The bluebottle fly is flying around" [John 1997: 44].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=tʼʊx2
Kari 1994: 260, 406; Tuttle 2009: 82. Paradigm: =tʼʌx, =tʼʊx [imperf.] / =tʼʊk [perf.] / =tʼʊx [fut.]. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =taɬ [imperf.] / =taƛ [perf.] / =tǝɬ [progressive] / =tǝ-k [customary] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to fly / to swim' used with pl. subj. [Kari 1994: 64, 406].
Central Carrier:=tʼo2
Poser 1998/2013: 718, 1222, 1260; Poser 2011a: 92; Antoine et al. 1974: 309. Used with sg. & pl. subj. Actually, this is a classificatory verb with the generic meaning 'to handle a long rigid object in an uncontrolled manner' [Poser 1998/2013: 1222].
Koyukon:=tʼoq2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 559, 911; Jones 1978: 65. Paradigm: =tʼoq [neuter imperf.] / =tʼoːχ [momentaneous imperf.] / =tʼoq [momentaneous perf.] / =tʼoχ-ƛ [progressive imperf., momentaneous fut.]. Historically = =t=ʔoq with the "classifier" t- as follows from its synchronic morphophonological behavior [Jetté & Jones 2000: 559]. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =nǝ=yiːɬ [momentaneous imperf.] / =nǝ=yǝɬ-ƛ [progressive imperf.] / =nǝ=yǝɬ [perf.] 'to fly' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 691, 911; Jones 1978: 65] used with pl. subj. < the classificatory verb =yǝɬ 'to move elongated object quickly'.
In the Upper dialect, 'to fly (pl. subj.)' is expressed by the general verb of plural motion =taːɬ [imperf.] =taːƛ [perf.] / =tǝɬ ~ =tǝɬ-ƛ [fut.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to swim / to fly' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 117, 919].
Degexit'an:=tʼʊχ2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 48; Chapman 1914: 228. Paradigm: =tʼʊχ [imperf.] / =tʼʊq [perf.]. Polysemy: 'to fly / to throw stick'. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =yǝɬ 'to fly', used with pl. subj. [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:=tʼɒ́h2
Li 1930b: 19; Hoijer 1956: 223. Paradigm: =tʼɒ́h [imperf.] / =tʼɒ̀ːy ~ =tʼɒ̀k- [perf.]. Used with sg. subj.
Distinct from =tàɬ [imperf.] / =táːl ~ =táƛʼ- [perf.] with polysemy: 'to go / to come / to fly' [Li 1930b: 18] used with pl. subj.
Number:30
Word:fly v.
Hupa:=xicʼ1
Perfective.
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:=čaqʼ3
Perfective.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:=tʼaq2
Perfective.
Mentasta Ahtena:=tʼaq2
Perfective.
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:=t=tʼèk2
Perfective.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):=tʼʊk2
Perfective.
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:=tʼʊq2
Perfective.
Sarsi:
Number:31
Word:foot
Hupa:possr=xe-ʔ1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 799; Golla 1996: 37. Polysemy: 'foot (of human or animal) / footprint / track'. As is noted in [Golla 1964: 115], on the synchronic level the root has two shapes: xeː ~ xe (as in possr=xeː-tʰaʔƛʼ ~ possr=xeː-tʰulʔ 'heel', literally 'foot stamper' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 799; Golla 1996: 45]) and xeʔ (as in possr=xeʔ-kʰʸeʔcʼ 'toenail'). A cognate verb is =xeh [light impef.] / =xiw (< *=xih-i)[heavy impef.] / =xe-ʔ [perf.] 'to track (an animal)' [Golla 1996: 99].
Distinct from the term for 'leg', which is expressed by the word for 'bone' q.v.: possr=cʼin-eʔ.
Mattole:possr=kʰeʔ1
Li 1930: 130. Cf. the cognate verb =kʰeʔ 'to track smbd.' [Li 1930: 21, 104] and the compound possr=kʰeʔ-kʷˈoːxʷ-eʔ 'ankle' (-kʷoːxʷ- 'joint') [Li 1930: 130].
Distinct from possr=čaːt-eʔ 'leg' [Li 1930: 131].
Bear River dialect: possr=kʰe(-)ʔ 'foot' [Goddard 1929: 316]. Attested also in the compound possr=kʰe=šimː-e 'toenail' [Goddard 1929: 298]. Distinct from possr=lokʼe (also erroneously possr=lokʰe), glossed as 'leg' or 'lower leg' in [Goddard 1929: 308, 317], literally 'smbd.'s salmon' (corresponds to Hupa possr=loːqʼ-eʔ 'calf of leg', lit. 'smbd.'s salmon' [Golla 1996: 56]).
Kato:possr=kʰʷeʔ1
Goddard 1912: 22. It must be noted that in [Curtis 1924: 201], this item is transcribed as =kʰe without labialization. In [Goddard 1912: 22], the analysis possr=kʰʷeʔ is proposed, but browsing through texts in [Goddard 1909] suggests that kʰʷeʔ is used either without prefixed possessive pronouns (e.g., [Goddard 1909: 112 No. 18, 180 No. 10]) or with the indefinite possessive pronoun kʰʷ-, i.e., kʰʷ=kʰʷeʔ ‘smb’s foot’ (e.g., [Goddard 1909: 116 No. 3/4/7, 118 No. 13]). Thus Goddard’s kʰʷeʔ ‘foot’ is historically a contraction from *kʰʷ=kʰeʔ ‘smb’s foot’ - cf. the similar case of kʼʷah ‘fat’ q.v.
Distinct from possr=woːs 'leg' [Goddard 1912: 22]. It must be noted that in [Curtis 1924: 201], 'leg' is quoted as possr=cʼǝn-e, i.e., 'bone' that coincides with the Hupa polysemy 'bone / leg' q.v.
Taldash Galice:possr=kʰeʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 57; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294, 295. Polysemy: 'foot / foot print, tracks, trail / hoof'. In [Landar 1977], quoted as kʰʷeʔ - a contraction from the possessed form *wa=kʰeʔ 'his/its arm' (see [Hoijer 1966: 321]). Cf. the cognate verb =kʰeʔ 'to track down, trail (trans.)' [Hoijer 1973: 68].
Distinct from possr=cʼat-eʔ with polysemy: 'bone / leg' [Hoijer 1973: 59; Landar 1977: 295].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=qʰa1
Kari 2007: 94, 350; Kari 1977: 107.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=qʰa-ƛʼn-ʔa1
Kari 2007: 94, 350; Kari 1977: 106. Or, perhaps, to be read possr=qʰa-ƛʼna without the izafet exponent? Polysemy: 'foot / leg'.
Inland Tanaina:possr=qʰa1
Kari 2007: 94, 350; Kari 1977: 107; Wassillie 1979: 73. Polysemy: 'foot / back paw'.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=qʰa1
Kari 2007: 94, 350; Kari 1977: 107.
Common Tanaina notes:
The form =qʰa is the original term for 'foot'. Expressions for 'leg' are based on this word: Upper Inlet, Inland possr=qʰa-kʰǝn-a 'leg' [Kari 2007: 93; Kari 1977: 106; Wassillie 1979: 58], literally 'foot's base' (with kʰǝn 'base'). Differently in other dialects: Iliamna possr=qʰa-ƛʼn-ʔa 'leg' [Kari 2007: 93], Seldovia possr=qʰa-ɬn-a 'leg' [Kari 2007: 93], the nature of the elemen -ƛʼn- (> Seldovia -ɬn-) is unclear.
In Outer Inlet, possr=qʰa-ƛʼn-ʔa originally meant 'leg', but has also extended to denote 'foot', superseding plain =qʰa.
Central Ahtena:possr=qʰe-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 238, 523; Kari & Buck 1975: 70; Smelcer 2010: 51.
Scottie Creek: possr=kʰè-ʔ 'foot' [John 1997: 13] (cf. the compounds possr=kʰèː-kʼit 'top of foot', possr=kʰèː-ƛʼàːt 'sole of foot'), possr=tθʼɤn-ʔ 'leg' [John 1997: 14].
Lower Tanana (Minto):possr=kʰa-ʔ1
Kari 1994: 151, 406; Tuttle 2009: 83. Polysemy: 'foot / footwear'. The non-possessed variant is kʰa.
Distinct from possr=kʰa-čʰǝn-aʔ 'boots / lower leg' [Kari 1994: 44, 151, 429] (literally 'base of foot'), possr=ɣʊθ-čʰǝn-aʔ 'upper leg' [Kari 1994: 139, 429] (literally 'base of thigh').
Central Carrier:possr=kʰe1
Poser 1998/2013: 209, 720; Poser 2011a: 93; Antoine et al. 1974: 27, 308. Polysemy: 'foot / hind paw / propeller'.
Distinct from possr=kʰe-čʰʌn 'leg' [Poser 1998/2013: 209, 787; Antoine et al. 1974: 27, 316], literally 'handle of foot' with possr=čʰʌn 'handle of broom, canoe paddle, or similar object, stem of plant' [Poser 1998/2013: 102].
Koyukon:possr=qʰaː-ʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 324, 912; Jones 1978: 66. Polysemy: 'foot / hind foot of animal'.
Distinct from the term for 'leg': possr=ƛʼǝn-ǝʔ 'bone / skeleton / leg / shell' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 600; Jones 1978: 93].
Distinct from the term for 'lower leg': possr=coːt-ǝʔ 'leg, lower leg; tapered post, stanchion' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 178]. As explained by Jetté: "Especially the lower portion, from the knee down. [...] =coːt-ǝʔ and =ƛʼǝn-ǝʔ are both said of the whole leg, but =coːt-ǝʔ refers more particularly to the lower portion" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 178].
Degexit'an:possr=qʰaː-ʔ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 37; Chapman 1914: 229. Polysemy: 'foot / paw'. For morphology, cf. such compounds as possr=qʰaː-ƛʼoːʁ 'sole of foot' [Kari 1978: 37], etc.
Distinct from possr=tθʼǝn 'leg' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 37; Chapman 1914: 221].
Distinct from possr=ɣùs 'leg' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69].
Number:32
Word:full
Hupa:=min1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 771; Golla 1996: 38; Golla 1970: 141. Verbal root 'to be full'. Originates from the heavy stem *=min-i with short -i-. Cf. the cognate verb =miŋ < *=meːn [light imperf.] / =meːn < *=meːn-i [heavy imperf.] / =miŋʔ < *=meːn-ʔ [light perf.] 'to fill (trans.)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 770; Golla 1996: 34] with long -eː-.
Mattole:=piŋ1
Li 1930: 84. Verbal root 'to become full'. Imperfective stem, originating from *=pi(ː)n; the heavy perfective stem is =piːʔn< *=pi(ː)n-ʔ-i.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=pǝŋ1
Goddard 1912: 69. Verbal root: 'to be full; to fill'. Imperfective stem, originating from *=pi(ː)n; the perfective stems are =piŋʔ< *=pi(ː)n-ʔ / =pinʔ< *=pi(ː)n-ʔ-i.
Taldash Galice:=man1
Hoijer 1973: 63; Hoijer 1956: 223. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be full / to be deep (said of river)'. Paradigm: =man [imperf.] / =manʔ < *=man-ʔ [perf.].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Inland Tanaina:=l=vǝn1
Wassillie 1979: 42. Polysemy: 'to fill (trans.) / to be full, filled'. Applied to liquids. The following examples have been found: "The gas tank is full" [Wassillie 1979: 42], "She filled the mouse bladder (with oil)" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 10].
Distinct from the verb =ʁǝt 'to fill (trans.) / to be full', used in the example: "Who could fill these (= snowshoes)? ... They were already filled (with webbing, raw-hide lacing)" [Tenenbaum 1976 1: 65; Tenenbaum 1978: 76, 151]. The same root is attested as =l=ʁǝt with the meaning 'to haul': "I haul wood" [Tenenbaum 1978: 148].
Distinct from the verb =l=tʼǝčʼ / =ɬ=tʼǝčʼ 'to fill (trans.) / to be full', used in the examples: "He filled up his pockets all over his whole body with cranberries" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 14; Lovick 2005: 35], "He filled the boat with spruce cones" [Tenenbaum 1976 2: 63].
Sometimes generic (classificatory) verbs can be used with the meaning 'to be full', cf. =čʰuqʼ 'to handle multiple objects' in the example "It's full of sugar" [Wassillie 1979: 42].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Central Ahtena:=l=pen1
Kari 1990: 105, 525.
Lower Ahtena: =l=pen [Kari 1990: 105, 525].
Western Ahtena: =l=pen [Kari 1990: 105, 525].
Mentasta Ahtena:=l=men1
Kari 1990: 105, 525.
Common Ahtena notes:
Verbal root, glossed as 'to be filled with liquid, be full'.
Dogrib:=ʔṍ2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 12, 168. Verbal root: 'to be full'. Examples: "Fill the barrel with oil" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 12], "Fill it up only once" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 53].
North Slavey (Hare):=ʔõ̀2
Rice 1978: 215, 410, 503; Hoijer 1956: 222. This is actually the "classificatory" verb =à [imperf.] / =ʔõ̀ [perf.] with the generic meaning 'to be in position (of 3-dimensional obj.)' [Rice 1978: 404; Rice 1989: 782, 794]; further notes see under 'give'.
Tanacross:=l=ʔãː2
Arnold et al. 2009: 128. Verbal root: 'to be full (of liquid)'.
Distinct from =l=tók 'to be packed, full', =tʰèk 'to be full (from eating), satisfied' [Arnold et al. 2009: 128].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=l=cʼak3
Milanowski 2009: 120.
Distinct from =l=tʰak 'to be full (from eating)' [Milanowski 2009: 53, 97].
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Not documented properly.
Central Carrier:=pʌn1
Poser 1998/2013: 728, 1218, 1249; Poser 2011a: 95; Antoine et al. 1974: 310. Verb with polysemy: 'to be full / to fill'. Paradigm: =pʌn [imperf., perf.] / =pi-h [customary]. Cf. the examples: "The pail is full of rain water" [Poser 1998/2013: 127], "It (a glass) is half-full" [Poser 1998/2013: 338], "Williston Lake is full [of water]" [Poser 1998/2013: 447], "The barn is very full of hay" [Poser 1998/2013: 532].
Koyukon:=l=ʔoːn̥2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 64, 915; Jones 1978: 68. Polysemy: 'to be sufficient, enough / to be full'. Cf. some examples: "The pail is full", "The freezer is full". Paradigm: =l=ʔoːn̥ ~ =l=ʔoːn-ʔ [neuter imperf.] / =l=ʔoː-ʔ [neuter perf.]. As plausibly proposed by Jetté & Jones, denasalized forms are due to influence of the generic classificatory verb =ʔoː '(compact) object is in position' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 40].
Degexit'an:=vǝn̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Chapman 1914: 219. In [Kari 1976: 8] it is glossed as 'to pour, surge, spill'; thus, the underlying meaning is 'to be filled up'.
Cf. some examples: "Kayak is full (of killed game)" [Chapman 1914: 125], "She took it and put it into her mouth, and sucked it until her mouth was full. When her mouth was full, she emptied it into the water in which he had washed himself" [Chapman 1914: 145], "Their house was full of every kind of skin that there is upon this earth below" [Chapman 1914: 147], "My cup is full", "Is your pail full?" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:=cʼìs-t5
Li 1930b: 24; Hoijer 1956: 223. Verbal stem: 'to be full'; =cʼìs-t is the imperf. & perf. form. Final -t(ʰ) is the fossilized perfective exponent, on which see further in [Li 1930b: 11].
Number:32
Word:full
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:=l=ʔoː-ʔ4
Perfective.
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
Number:33
Word:give
Hupa:=ʔaː1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 730, 731; Golla 1996: 40. A classificatory verb whose general meaning is 'to handle a round object'. The set =ʔa-ʍ (< *=ʔaː-ʍ) / =ʔaː-n (< *=ʔaː-n-i) is directional imperfective/perfective, =ʔaː / =ʔa-ʔ (< *=ʔaː-ʔ) is nondirectional imperfective/perfective [Golla 1977: 357].
Mattole:
Not attested. Cf. the classificatory verb with the general meaning 'to handle round object', which could be the default expression for 'to give' (like in Hupa q.v.): directional imperfective =ʔaː-x, directional perfective =ʔa-ŋ [light; < *=ʔaː-n] / =ʔaː-n [heavy; < *=ʔaː-n-i], nondirectional imperfective =ʔaː [light] / =ʔa-i [heavy; < *=ʔaː-i], nondirectional perfective =ʔa-ʔ [Li 1930: 72].
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=ʔa1
Goddard 1912: 59 (sub =ʔaiʔ and =ʔaŋ). A classificatory verb whose general meaning is 'to handle a round object'. Among several classificatory verbs, used in the meaning 'to give' with corresponding specific objects, =ʔa is the most generic one. Interrogative contexts like "What did you give him?" are not documented in [Goddard 1909], but contexts with generic objects are attested: "All the people gave (=ʔa) him different things (= made him presents of all kinds)" [Goddard 1909: 102 No. 5], "Many people [...] gave (=ʔa-ŋ) him various presents" [Goddard 1909: 157 No. 7]. Attested paradigmatic forms: directional imperfective =ʔa-š, directional perfective =ʔa-ŋ < *=ʔaː-n, nondirectional imperfective =ʔaː / =ʔa-i, nondirectional perfective =ʔa-ʔ (also secondary =ʔa-i-ʔ).
Taldash Galice:
Not attested. Cf. the classificatory verb with the general meaning 'to handle round solid object', which could be the default expression for 'to give' (like in Hupa q.v.): =ʔa-š [imperf.] / =ʔãː < *=ʔaː-n [perf.] [Hoijer 1973: 63 No. 11].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Inland Tanaina:
As follows from [Wassillie 1979: 44; Tenenbaum 1978: 132 ff.; Holton et al. 2004: 40 ff.], 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj'. The choice of a specific verb depends on the kind of object (elongated, fabric-like, plural, and so on), see [Tenenbaum 1978: 132 ff.; Holton et al. 2004: 40 ff.] for the Inland classificatory verbs and [Boraas 2010: 118] for the Outer Inlet ones. Which of the classificatory verbs is used as the default one (i.e., in contexts such as "What did you give him?" or "Give me something"), however, remains uncertain.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Central Ahtena:=ʔaː-n1
Kari 1990: 70, 527.
Lower Ahtena: =ʔaː-n [Kari 1990: 70, 527].
Western Ahtena: =ʔaː-n [Kari 1990: 70, 527].
Mentasta Ahtena:=ʔaː-n1
Kari 1990: 70, 527.
Common Ahtena notes:
Paradigm: =ʔaː-n [imperf.] / =ʔa-ʔ [perf.], etc. A classificatory verb whose general meaning is 'to handle a compact object'. For the generic meaning 'to give', cf. the example "he gave it to him" [Kari 1990: 71]. With specific objects, other classificatory verbs with the corresponding meanings can be used.
Dogrib:
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj'. The choice of a specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list in [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 170]: =tʰè 'animate object', =ʔà 'chunky object', =čʰí 'cloth object', =xé 'heavy object', =wá 'many things', =kʰá 'plateful', =lé 'plural objects', =tʰĩ̀ 'rigid object', =čʰí 'single object'.
Which of the aforementioned classificatory verbs is used as the default one (i.e., in contexts such as "What did you give him?" or "Give me something") remains uncertain.
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general semantics 'to handle obj' / 'obj is in position'. The choice of the specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list of classificatory verbs in [Rice 1989: 779-788] (Rice's description is generally based on the South Slavey language, but the North Slavey system is very similar). A distinctive feature of North Slavey and South Slavey is that the classificatory verbs are separated into two synonymous sets. The distinction between the action described by these two sets can be very roughly explained as controlled/uncontrolled or polite/impolite (without negative connotations). E.g., a verb from the first set describes the action 'to give carefully and politely', a verb from the second one describes the action 'to give quickly', see [Rice 1989: 784, 787].
According to [Rice 1989: 794], the most generic classificatory verbs combined with a wide spectrum of objects are "controlled" =ʔà [imperf.] / =ʔõ̀ [perf.] and "uncontrolled" =t=šù. Cf. some examples for =ʔà / =ʔõ̀ 'to give': "He gave roe a rolled up blanket", "Let me have the knife", "I gave him cents" [Rice 1978: 252]. Cf. some examples for =t=šù 'to give' "Give me the axe", "He handed me a pencil", "I handed him the baby" [Rice 1978: 251].
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj' plus the specific prefix ƛʼàː=. The choice of a specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list in [Arnold et al. 2009: 29 ff., 131; Shinen 1958: 42]: =ʔàː-y̥ [imperf.] / =ʔãː [perf.] 'general, compact object', =tʰìːy̥ [imperf.] / =tʰãː [perf.] 'long object', =kʰàːy̥ [imperf.] / =kʰãː [perf.] 'pourable object, object in open container', =čʰùːθ [imperf.] / =čʰúːθ [perf.] 'flat, flexible object', =čʰùːt [imperf.] / =čʰúːt [perf.] 'piece of food', =tʰèːy̥ [imperf.] / =tʰẽː [perf.] 'living being', =ɬ̬èːy̥ [imperf.] / =ƛàh [perf.] 'plural objects'. There is also an eighth classificatory verb for 'mushy object', mentioned in [Arnold et al. 2009: 30].
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj' plus the prefix ƛʼaː=. The choice of any specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list in [Milanowski 2009: 114-117]: =ʔãː 'general; round; hollow', =tʰãː 'long; speaker's vegetation; fluid mass', =kʰay̥ 'fluid; object in open container', =ndiːk 'fabric', =tʰĩː 'living being', =ƛah 'rope-like; plural objects'.
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj' frequently accompanied with the prefix ƛʼǝ= [Kari 1994: 266]. The choice of any specific verb depends on the kind of object. The Lower Tanana system of classificatory verbs has not yet been described properly, but it seems that =ʔʌ- 'to handle compact object' is the most generic expression for 'to give'. Cf. some examples with ƛʼǝ=...=ʔʌ- 'to give': "I gave her the hat", "give him the plate", "hand me that book" [Kari 1994: 20].
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj'. The choice of any specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list in [Poser 2011b: 36; Poser 1998/2013: 12; Antoine et al. 1974: 368 ff.]: =ʔa 'non-plural generic object', =c̪ai 'uncountable objects (sugar, berries)', =le 'plural default objects', =kʰo 'contents of open container (cup of tea)', =tʰan 'long rigid object (stick)', =tʰe 'body (dog)', =čʰus̪ 'two-dimensional flexible object (shirts)', =ƛʰe 'mushy stuff (mud)', =ce 'liquid (water); hay-like (hay)', =to 'fluffy stuff (down)', and some others which can be found in [Poser 1998/2013: 1247-1266].
Koyukon:ƛʼoː=...=ʔoː-y̥1
Henry & Henry 1965; Jetté & Jones 2000: 40. Paradigm: =ʔoː-y̥ [momentaneous imperf.] / =ʔoː-n̥ [momentaneous perf.].
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj' / 'obj is in position' frequently accompanied with the prefix ƛʼoː= [Jetté & Jones 2000: 608]. The choice of any specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the non-exhaustive list in [Henry & Henry 1965: 113]: =ʔoː-y̥ / =ʔoː-n̥ 'round, solid object, or an object not otherwise classified (e.g., ball, rock, ball of rope, book, sun, clock, axe, barrel, bead, coin, house, village)'; =tʰiː-y̥ / =tʰoːn̥ 'rigid, usually slender object (e.g., pencil, log, lumber, door, dried fish, one snowshoe, feather, arrow, boat, sled, blade of grass)' with =ɬ=tʰiː-y̥ / =ɬ=tʰoːn̥ 'large, bulky object (e.g., mattress, packsack, bag of flour or sugar)'; =tʰaː-y̥ / =tʰaː-n̥ 'animate or living being'; =qʰoː-y̥ / =qʰoː-n̥ 'container and its contents (e.g., bowl of soup, cup of coffee, box of eggs, bucket of rocks, can of trash)'; =kʰuːɬ 'flexible or fabric-like object (e.g., article of clothing, blanket, tent, fishnet, piece of paper)'; =ƛʰaːχ / =ƛʰaːq 'soft, sticky mass (e.g., cooked cereal, dough, soft mud)'; =kʰuːt 'food that can be consumed immediately (e.g., a meal, soup, cooked meat)'; =noːχ / =noːq 'powdery or granular mass not in a container (e.g., sand, flour, salt, sugar)'; =laː / =loː 'general plural class' plus =lyaː / =lyoː 'specialized plural class, usually small round objects of a large quantity and belonging to a set (e.g., unstrung beads, berries, rocks in a landslide, potatoes)'.
Degexit'an:ƛʼoː=...=ʔoː-y̥1
Taff et al. 2007. Paradigm: =ʔoː-y̥ [imperf.] / =ʔoː-n̥ [perf.]. The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj' / 'obj is in position', frequently accompanied with the prefix ƛʼoː=. Apparently =ʔoː-y̥ 'to handle compact object' [Kari 1976: 4] is used for the most generic expression for 'to give', cf. some examples: "She gave it to me for Mothers' Day", "Give me half of that", "He gave me part of it" [Taff et al. 2007].
The meaning 'to give' is expressed by the so-called classificatory verbs with the general meaning 'to handle obj'. The choice of any specific verb depends on the kind of object. Cf. the list in [Cook 1984: 140]: =ʔɒ̀h / =ʔɒ́(n-) 'round, solid object'; =s=tʰàh / =s=tʰí(n-) 'sg. living being'; =tʰìh / =tʰɒ́(n-) 'long object'; =V=kʰɒ̀h / =V=kʰɒ́(n-) 'object with a dish'; =cáh / =čàːž ~ =čàč- 'grain-like object'; =s=cʰús / =s=cʰùːz 'fabric-like object'; =V=tʰàs / =V=tʰáːz ~ =s=tʰác- 'pl. living beings'; =lɒ́ 'pl. object'.
Number:33
Word:give
Hupa:
Mattole:
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):=t=šù2
Rice 1978: 251, 458, 504.
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
Number:34
Word:good
Hupa:=ʍoːn1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 797; Golla 1996: 41. Verbal root 'to be good'. The heavy imperfective stem, originating from *=ʍoːn-i; the perfective stem is =woʔn < *=woːn-ʔ-i with the causative menaing 'to suit, be goot to' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 797; Golla 1996: 92].
Mattole:=xʷoːn1
Li 1930: 81. Verbal root 'to be good'. This is the heavy stem, originating from *=xʷoːn-i; the light stem is =xʷoŋ < *=xʷoːn [Li 1930: 21 f.].
Bear River dialect: =xʷon ~ =hʷoŋ ~ =hʷaŋ 'to be good' [Goddard 1929: 316].
Kato:=šoːŋ1
Goddard 1912: 67. Verbal root: 'to be good'.
Taldash Galice:=šo1
Landar 1977: 294. Glossed as 'good, right'. Apparently an inaccurate transcription for the expected **=šõː.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:ya=ʁǝl-i2
Kari 2007: 316, 351; Kari 1977: 249.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:ya=ʁǝl-i2
Kari 2007: 316, 351; Kari 1977: 249. The variant ya=ʁal-i is also attested [Boraas 2010: 43 et passim].
Inland Tanaina:ya=ʁǝl-i2
Kari 2007: 316, 351; Kari 1977: 249; Wassillie 1979: 45.
Iliamna Tanaina:ya=ʁǝl-i2
Kari 2007: 316, 351; Kari 1977: 249.
Common Tanaina notes:
Widely applicable. Syntactically, a noun-like adjective (in [Lovick 2005: 106], classified as a particle). Apparently a form with the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i; initial ya= is not entirely clear (e.g., < *yǝ-a with the 3rd p. object pronoun and the postposition 'in contact with'). Cf. the plain root in ʁǝl-i 'real, true, genuine, really' [Kari 2007: 317; Kari 1977: 249].
Central Ahtena:ʁel-i2
Kari 1990: 218, 528.
Lower Ahtena: ʁel-i [Kari 1990: 218, 528].
Western Ahtena: ʁel-i [Kari 1990: 218, 528].
Mentasta Ahtena:ʁel2
Kari 1990: 218, 528. Regular reduction of final -i.
Common Ahtena notes:
A noun-like adjective, glossed as 'good, real, true'. Cf. u=ʁel-i, used in the predicative position and glossed as 'good, fine, well, excellent' (also substantivized 'a good thing'; all dialects) [Kari 1990: 218].
Dogrib:=zĩ́1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 80, 171. Verbal root, glossed as 'to be good, right, nice, proper, neat'. Widely applicable, e.g., "He became a good man" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 73], "Is the meat good?" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 82], "Everyone serves the good wine first..." [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 99], "The radio is old so it doesn't sound good" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 117].
North Slavey (Hare):=zõ̀1
Rice 1978: 302, 485, 507.
Tanacross:=s̬ũː1
Arnold et al. 2009: 134; Holton 2000: 350; Shinen 1958: 20. Verbal root 'to be good', widely applicable.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=sõː1
Milanowski 2009: 97, 120. Verbal root: 'to be good'.
Scottie Creek: =s̬õː 'to be good' [John 1997: 1].
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ʐun̥ ~ ʐu-ʔ-u1
Kari 1994: 355, 412. The verb =ʐun̥ 'to be good' and the cognate noun-like adjective ʐu-ʔ-u ~ ʐǝ-ʔ-u (< *ʐun-ʔ-u) 'good' coexist in the language. Widely applicable.
Central Carrier:=zu1
Poser 1998/2013: 742, 1224, 1265; Poser 2011a: 103; Antoine et al. 1974: 311. Verbal stem: 'to be good', widely applicable. Paradigm: =zu [imperf.] / =zu-ʔ [perf.].
Koyukon:=zuː-n̥1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 743, 919; Jones 1978: 72. Verbal stem: 'to be good', widely applicable. Paradigm: =zuː-n̥ [neuter imperf.] / =zuː-ʔ [neuter perf.].
Degexit'an:=ʐeː-n̥1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 68; Chapman 1914: 221. Verbal stem: 'to be good', glossed as 'good, handsome, pretty' in [Taff et al. 2007]. Cf. the examples: "The duck soup is good", "It's nice outside", "He saw a pretty woman", "Orange juice is good", "His boss is good" [Taff et al. 2007].
Distinct from the noun-like adjective neːg 'good' [Taff et al. 2007] which, apparently, is used less frequently. Cf. the examples: "This is good soup", "She makes good fry bread", "He has a good job" [Taff et al. 2007].
Sarsi:subj=á-kù-nì-līh3
Cook 1984: 181. This expression is based on the verb =līh ~ =lín- [imperf.] / =lìːn [perf.] 'to be' [Li 1930b: 26] plus the impersonal subject prefix ku and "thematic" ni [Cook 1984: 171]. Probably the main meaningful element here is à, which can be analyzed as the postposition construction obj=á '(to be) like obj' or '(to be) on obj' [Cook 1984: 187]. I.e., 'smth. is good' = literally '(it) is like smth.' or '(it) is on smth.'.
Cf. some examples: "This soup is good", "This bannock is good" [Nanagusja 1996b: 69], "This tea is good" [Nanagusja 1996b: 80], "It's a good sign" [Nanagusja 1996b: 102].
Number:35
Word:green
Hupa:=cʰow1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 737; Golla 1996: 12. Polysemy: 'to be blue / to be green' (apparently also 'to be yellow' q.v.).
Distinct from =lo-y 'to be green, unripe (of berries, fruits)' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 764; Golla 1996: 42].
Mattole:
Not attested. Cf. the verb =cʰow 'to be blue / to be yellow (q.v.)' [Li 1930: 10, 110], which apparently also denotes 'to be green'.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=cʰoː1
Goddard 1912: 28; Curtis 1924: 203. Verbal root with polysemy: 'to be blue / to be green' - explicit gloss in [Curtis 1924]. Glossed by Goddard as 'to be blue' only, but the phrase ƛʼoːh ɬ=cʰoː, translated by Goddard as "blue grass", also points to the meaning 'green'.
Taldash Galice:
Not attested.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:kʼ=tʼun qʰi-ti-l-tʼan-i2
Kari 2007: 320; Kari 1977: 254.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:kʼ=tʼun qʰi-ti-l-tʼan-i2
Kari 2007: 320; Kari 1977: 254.
Inland Tanaina:kʼ=tʼun qʰi-ti-l-tʼan-i2
Kari 2007: 320; Kari 1977: 254. In [Wassillie 1979: 46], quoted as kʼ=tʼun qʰi-l-tʼan-i.
Iliamna Tanaina:kʼ=tʼun qʰi-ti-l-tʼan-i2
Kari 2007: 320; Kari 1977: 254.
Common Tanaina notes:
Literally 'a leaf-like one' and 'a grass-like one' with possr=tʼun 'leaf' q.v. and kʼ=čʰan - a reduced form of Upper Inlet kʼǝ=cʰan, Inland, Iliamna kʼǝ=čʰan, Outer Inlet, Seldovia kʼǝ=n=čʰan 'grass' [Kari 2007: 53]. Initial kʼ(ǝ)= is the indefinite possessive pronoun.
Central Ahtena:ƛʼoʁ qʼe-l-cʰiːn-i4
Kari 1990: 364, 529; Kari & Buck 1975: 104; Smelcer 2010: 60.
In [Kari 1990; Smelcer 2010], glossed simply as 'green'; in [Kari & Buck 1975: 104], specified as 'dark green'. Literally 'a grass-like one' with ƛʼoʁ 'grass' [Kari 1990: 364].
Dogrib:ĩ́=tʼõ̀ làːnì2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 54, 172. Literally 'leaf-like' with ĩ́=tʼõ̀ 'leaf' q.v. and the adverb làːnì 'like' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 67]. Plain ĩ́=tʼõ̀ or ĩ́=tʼõ̀-ã́ 'leaf' can also be used as the noun-like adjective 'green' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 54].
North Slavey (Hare):ʔĩ̀=tʼṍ-ʔ2
Rice 1978: 34, 142. A noun-like adjective with polysemy: 'leaf / flower / cabbage, lettuce, vegetables / green (adj.)'.
Tanacross:t=è=l=ƛêːʒ ~ t=è=l=ƛéːc5
Arnold et al. 2009: 137; Holton 2000: 178, 348; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 22; McRoy 1973: 16. Verbal stem =l=ƛéːc with polysemy: 'to be green / to be blue'. Initial t= is the adjectival/gender exponent [Holton 2000: 237 ff.]. The variant =l=ƛêːʒ is nominalized < *=l=ƛéːc-V̀.
In [Shinen 1958: 18], the expression čʼetʰaʔakʼelcʰin is quoted for 'green', to be read as analytic čʼè=tʼã̌ː-ʔ kʼè=ʔe=l=cʰĩ̀ː 'it resembles a leaf' with čʼè=tʼã̌ː-ʔ 'leaf' q.v. (initial čʼè= is the indefinite possessive pronoun) and the verb =l=cʰĩ̀ː 'to resemble' [Arnold et al. 2009: 165].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):te=l=tθʰoː1
Milanowski, p.c.; Milanowski 2009: 72. Polysemy: 'green / yellow / brown' (specified by Milanowski as "part of the broad spectrum of brown"). Nominalized verbal form: 'it is brown'.
Scottie Creek: xaʔkaːy tenĩh=ƛʼɯ̃̂ː 'green', a specification of the basic color term tinĩh=ƛʼɯ̃̂ː 'blue' [John 1997: 32]. Cf. tat=s̬ãy 'black' > hàʔkaːy tat=s̬ãy 'brown' [John 1997: 32], containing the same element xaʔkaːy in a different transcription.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=l=tθʰʊx1
Kari 1994: 314, 413; Tuttle 2009: 233. Verb with polysemy: 'to be yellow / tan / brown / blonde / green'. Paradigm: =l=tθʰʊx [neuter imperf.] / =l=tθʰux [transitional imperf.] / =l=tθʰuk [transitional perf.].
Central Carrier:=l=ƛʼʌz6
Poser 1998/2013: 745, 1223, 1261; Poser 2011a: 105; Antoine et al. 1974: 311. Verbal stem: 'to be green'. Cf. the example: "He made his snowshoes green" [Poser 1998/2013: 138].
Distinct from the verb =tʼeh 'to be unripe, green' [Poser 1998/2013: 148, 745] and the noun-like adjective tʼeh 'rare (of meat)' [Poser 1998/2013: 475].
Koyukon:=l=ƛʰuχ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 586. Verbal stem, also functions as the noun-like adjective ƛʰuʁ-ǝʔ. In [Jetté & Jones 2000: 586], glossed as 'to be yellow, tan, brown, olive-green, be the color of a smoke-tanned skin', but actually with polysemy: 'to be yellow / to be green' as follows from Jetté's note "the Ten'a are not particular in distinguishing colors, and commonly express a light green as 'yellow', and a dark green as 'black'" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 648] and the example "shiny green grass in lakes" [Jetté & Jones 2000: 605].
There is also a rare verb =l=cʰuχ 'to be yellow / to be green' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 648], which represents a cognate of =l=ƛʰuχ, having been borrowed from a neighboring lect.
Degexit'an:χǝnoːɬyaːl-χǝqʼǝy7
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 55. Literally 'plant-like' with χǝ=noː=ɬ=yaː-l 'plant' (which literally means 'that which is growing' with =yoː-n̥ [neuter imperf.] / =yaː-ɬ [progressive imperf.] 'to grow' [Kari 1976: 64]).
Sarsi:=s=čɒ̄š8
Li 1930b: 25; Cook 1984: 166. Verb with polysemy: 'to be dark blue / to be green'. Cf. some examples: "green leaves", "green beads", "green jacket" [Nanagusja 1996b: 188].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 736; Golla 1996: 43; Golla 1996a: 385. In [Golla 1996], these forms are quoted as cʰi=wu-ŋʔ ~ =cʰi=wu-nʔ. Compound of the root =cʰeː ~ =cʰi 'head' (q.v.) and =waʔ 'body hair, fur' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 792; Golla 1996: 43]. It is stated in [Golla 1964: 110] that the synchronic Hupa root is =waʔ (not =waː-ʔ with the izafet exponent), cf. the full form possr=cʰi=waʔ-n-eʔ, quoted in [Golla 1996a: 385]. Thus =waŋʔ ~ =wanʔ in the compounds for 'head hair' apparently originate from *=waʔnʔ with the cluster simplification. The final *-n-iʔ (> -ŋʔ ~ -nʔ ~ -n-eʔ) contains an old N-suffix with the synchronic izafet exponent -eʔ.
Mattole:possr=cʰiʔ=kˈaʔ1
Li 1930: 126. Synchronically, can be analyzed as =kˈaʔ or =kˈa-ʔ. Compound of possr=cʰiʔ 'head' q.v. and possr=ɣˈa(-)ʔ 'fur' [Li 1930: 126]. For ɣ instead of k see [Li 1930: 9].
Bear River dialect: possr=si(ː)=ɣaʔ 'head hair' [Goddard 1929: 317].
Kato:possr=siːʔ=kaʔ1
Goddard 1909: 144 No. 6; Curtis 1924: 201. Compound of possr=siːʔ 'head' q.v. and possr=kaʔ 'hair, fur' [Goddard 1912: 22].
Taldash Galice:possr=si-ʔ2
Hoijer 1973: 59; Landar 1977: 294. Polysemy: 'head / head hair'. Transcribed by Landar as =sʸiː-ʔ. In compounds, the form siː- is used [Hoijer 1973: 59].
The old root for 'hair' is retained in several synchronic variants:
3) =ka(ʔ) in the compound possr=taː=ka(-)ʔ 'beard, moustache' [Hoijer 1973: 55; Landar 1977: 294] (lit. 'mouth hair' with =taː- 'mouth' q.v.).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:cʰi=ʁu1
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96. Apparently, can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes. The possessed form is possr=cʰi=ʁu.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:čʼix3
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96. Apparently, can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes. The possessed form is possr=čʼix-ʔa.
Inland Tanaina:cʰi=ʁu1
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96; Wassillie 1979: 47. Apparently, can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes. The possessed form is possr=cʰi=ʁu.
Iliamna Tanaina:cʰi=ʁu1
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96. Apparently, can be used without obligatory possessor prefixes. The possessed form is possr=cʰi=ʁu.
Common Tanaina notes:
The old term cʰi=ʁu 'head hair' is retained in all the Tanaina dialects except for Outer Inlet; literally 'head's hair' with cʰi 'head' q.v. and possr=ʁu 'body hair, fur; pelt' (all dialects; applied to both humans and animals) [Kari 2007: 13, 87].
Outer Inlet čʼix is etymologically unclear (so-called "elite replacement"). It is proposed in [Kari 1996: 61] that čʼix 'head hair' represents the same root as the Common Tanaina word čʼix '?' in the expression for 'glare ice, clear ice': Upper Inlet tʰǝn cʼis-a, Outer Inlet & Iliamna tʰǝn čʼix-ʔa, Inland tʰǝn čʼix-a, literally 'čʼix of ice' with tʰǝn 'ice' [Kari 2007: 130].
Central Ahtena:possr=cʰi=ʁa-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 208, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
Western Ahtena: possr=cʰi=ʁa-ʔ [Kari 1990: 208, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=cʰi=ʁa-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 208, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
Common Ahtena notes:
According to [Kari 1990: 208], the non-possessed form cʰi=ʁaː can also be used. Literally 'head hair' with cʰi 'head' q.v. and possr=ʁa-ʔ 'body hair, fur' [Kari 1990: 208; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Distinct from yuːcʼ, quoted in [Kari 1990: 443] with the gloss 'hair', but without additional comments (not present in other dictionaries as a separate entry). The cognate verb seems to be more common: =t=yuːcʼ 'to be hairy, furry, fuzzy, have hair, whiskers' [Kari 1990: 443].
Dogrib:possr=kʰʷì=ɣà1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 44, 173. The non-possessed form is also allowed: kʰʷì=ɣá [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 65]. Apparently this compound only denotes human head hair, cf. the examples: "Braid your hair!" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 16], "Nowadays, a lot of women keep their hair short" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 19], "Your hair curls nicely" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 29], "I have already combed my hair" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 58], "If people are sad, we cut their hair" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 108]. Literally 'head's fur' with =kʰʷì 'head' q.v. and the generic term possr=ɣà 'hair, fur' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 27].
North Slavey (Hare):possr=fí=ɣá-ʔ1
Rice 1978: 60, 143. Literally 'head's hair' with possr=fí-ʔ 'head' q.v. and the generic term possr=ɣá-ʔ 'hair, fur' [Rice 1978: 60; Hoijer 1956: 222].
Tanacross:possr=tθʰìː=x̬á-ʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 140; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 24; McRoy 1973: 7; Shinen 1958: 3. Meaning 'head hair', literally 'hair of head' with possr=x̬á-ʔ '(human/animal) hair, fur' [Arnold et al. 2009: 128, 140; Holton 2000: 344] and possr=tθʰí-ʔ 'head' q.v.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=tθʰiːʔ=xa-ʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 26, 70, 75. Meaning 'head hair', literally 'xa of head'. The noun =xa- is not documented outside of this collocation. The noun possr=tθʰiː-ʔ 'head' can be used in the meaning 'head hair' in some contexts, cf. the example "She combs her hair (=tθʰiː-) every day" [Milanowski 2009: 94].
Kari 1994: 129, 415; Tuttle 2009: 96. Literally 'head's hair' < possr=tθʰi-ʔ 'head' (q.v.) plus generic possr=ɣʌ-ʔ with polysemy: 'hair / fur / feathers' [Kari 1994: 129].
Central Carrier:possr=c̪ʰi=ɣa-ʔ1
Poser 1998/2013: 505, 747; Poser 2011a: 107; Antoine et al. 1974: 49, 312. Literally 'head's hair' < possr=c̪ʰi 'head' (q.v.) plus generic possr=ɣa 'fur, hair' [Poser 1998/2013: 158; Antoine et al. 1974: 23].
Koyukon:ƛʰuː=χ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 584, 923; Jones 1978: 76. Alienable possession; possessed: possr=ƛʰuː=ʁ-ǝʔ ~ possr=ƛʰiː=ʁoː-ʔ. Meaning 'head hair'. The synchronic root ƛʰuːχ (possr=ƛʰuːʁ-ǝʔ) is the result of contraction and reanalysis of the more rarely used compound possr=ƛʰiː=ʁoː-ʔ, literally 'head's hair' with possr=ʁoː-ʔ 'fur, body hair' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 249].
Degexit'an:possr=tθʰeː=ʁ ~ possr=tθʰeː=ʁoː1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 33; Chapman 1914: 223. Meaning 'head hair'. The synchronic root =tθʰeːʁ [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 33] is the result of contraction and reanalysis of the compound possr=tθʰeː=ʁoː-(ʔ) quoted for the archaic language in [Chapman 1914: 223] and also for the Kuskokwim dialect in [Kari 1978: 33]. Literally possr=tθʰeː=ʁoː-(ʔ) means 'head's hair' with possr=ʁoː-ʔ 'fur, hair' [Chapman 1914: 223].
Sapir & Golla 2001: 761; Golla 1996: 43. Polysemy: 'hand / finger'. The synchronic root is =laʔ (not *=laː-ʔ with the izafet exponent), cf. the compound possr=laʔ-kʰʸeʔcʼ 'fingernail' q.v. and see [Golla 1964: 117].
The meaning 'arm' is expressed by the descriptive formation possr=kʼʸaːŋʔay (< *=kʼʸa=win=ʔa-i), literally 'it extends away from smb.' [Golla 1996: 5; Golla 1996a: 384; Golla 1970: 220] (cf. the similar structure of the stem for 'head' q.v.). The old root for 'arm' could be qan, attested in possr=qan-tʰaq 'shoulders', if < 'between (=tʰaq) arms' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 754].
Cf. a separate term for 'forearm, forearm muscles': possr=cʼeːlʔ < *=cʼeːl-iʔ [Sapir & Golla 2001: 738; Golla 1996: 5].
Mattole:ˈpossr=laʔ1
Li 1930: 132. Polysemy: 'hand / finger'. Cf. also compounds like possr=laʔ=ɕʰˈeʔs 'fingernail', possr=laʔ=ɕʰˈowi 'thumb' (ɕʰˈowi is the augmentative morpheme, see notes on 'big'), possr=laʔ=yˈaːx 'other four fingers' [Li 1930: 132] (yaːx means 'small (subst.)', see notes on 'small'), possr=laʔ-kʷˈoːxʷ-eʔ 'wrist' [Li 1930: 130] (with =kʷoːxʷ- 'joint'). The place of accent (ˈpossr=laʔ instead of expected **possr=lˈaʔ) should point to an old nasal prefix, i.e., *possr=n=laʔ, see [Li 1930: 50].
Distinct from possr=kaːn-eʔ 'arm' [Li 1930: 129].
Bear River dialect: possr=laʔ 'hand' [Goddard 1929: 317]. Distinct from possr=ɣan-e 'arm' [Goddard 1929: 313].
Distinct from kanih (i.e., possr=kan-iʔ) 'arm' [Curtis 1924: 201] and possr=kʰʷan-eʔ 'arm, shoulder' [Goddard 1912: 22; Goddard 1909: 160 No. 7]. It seems that Curtis' =kan- and Goddard' =kʰʷan- represent two different terms.
Taldash Galice:possr=laʔ1
Hoijer 1973: 61; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. Synchronically, either =laʔ or =la-ʔ.
Distinct from possr=kaːn-eʔ with polysemy: 'arm / branch of tree' [Hoijer 1973: 56]. In [Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294], quoted as kʷaːn-iʔ or kʷaːn-e - a contraction from the possessed form *wa=kʷaːn-eʔ 'his/its arm' (see [Hoijer 1966: 321]).
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=qun-a2
Kari 2007: 91, 351; Kari 1977: 101.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=qun-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 91, 351; Kari 1977: 101.
Inland Tanaina:possr=qun-a2
Kari 2007: 91, 351; Kari 1977: 101; Wassillie 1979: 48.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=qun-ʔa2
Kari 2007: 91, 351; Kari 1977: 101.
Common Tanaina notes:
Polysemy: 'hand / arm' in all the dialects. The old root for 'hand' is retained as lu in compounds like lu-qǝn 'fingernail' q.v., literally 'hand's claw', etc., see [Kari 2007: 92].
Central Ahtena:possr=la-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 270, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 65; Smelcer 2010: 47.
Western Ahtena: possr=la-ʔ [Kari 1990: 270, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 65; Smelcer 2010: 47].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=la-ʔ1
Kari 1990: 270, 531; Kari & Buck 1975: 65; Smelcer 2010: 47.
Common Ahtena notes:
Polysemy: 'hand / branch'.
Distinct from the term for 'arm': possr=qaːn-eʔ (all dialects; Mentasta possr=qaːn-ʔ) [Kari 1990: 190, 479; Kari & Buck 1975: 65; Smelcer 2010: 47] < Proto-Ahtena *possr=qaːnʔ-eʔ, cf. the variant qaːnʔ- used in compounds.
Dogrib:possr=ĩ́=là ~ possr=í=là ~ possr=là1
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 42, 173. The most archaic form is probably =ĩ́=là with the nasal gender prefix.
Distinct from possr=kõ̀ː 'arm' [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 41, 141].
North Slavey (Hare):possr=ĩ̀=lá-ʔ1
Rice 1978: 71, 143; Hoijer 1956: 222. As first element of compounds, the variant là- is used.
Distinct from possr=kón-éʔ 'arm / front legs of animals' [Rice 1978: 57, 116].
Tanacross:possr=ìn=ɬ̬á-ʔ1
Arnold et al. 2009: 141; Holton 2000: 344; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 25; McRoy 1973: 9. For the old polysemy: 'hand / branch', see notes on 'bark'.
Distinct from possr=káːn-ʔ 'arm' [Arnold et al. 2009: 46; Holton 2000: 340].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=ɬa-ʔ ~ possr=ɬaː-ʔ1
Milanowski 2009: 20, 23. For morphology, cf. the compounds possr=laː-cʼoː-ʔ 'three middle fingers' or possr=laː-kãy-ʔ 'fingernail' [Milanowski 2009: 19].
Distinct from possr=kaːnː-ʔ 'arm' [Milanowski 2009: 67].
Kari 1994: 183, 415; Tuttle 2009: 96. Polysemy: 'hand / foreleg of quadruped / branch' (the meaning 'branch' is attested in compounds). Variant lʌ- in compounds.
Distinct from possr=kʌn-aʔ 'arm' [Kari 1994: 113, 363].
Central Carrier:possr=la1
Poser 1998/2013: 232, 748; Poser 2011a: 107; Antoine et al. 1974: 32, 312. Polysemy: 'hand / forepaw, paw'.
Distinct from possr=kan 'arm; foreleg (of animal)' [Poser 1998/2013: 156; Antoine et al. 1974: 22].
Koyukon:possr=loː-ʔ1
Jetté & Jones 2000: 404, 925; Jones 1978: 76. Polysemy: 'hand / limb / forefoot of quadruped / branch' (the meaning 'branch' only in compounds). Synchronously rather =loː-ʔ than =loːʔ, cf. lo- as the first element of compounds.
Distinct from two words for 'arm': possr=qoːn-ǝʔ 'arm / foreleg / frontquarter of quadruped:' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 212, 847; Jones 1978: 12], possr=ƛʼiːl-ǝʔ 'arm / forearm / foreleg of quadruped / sleeve' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 594, 847; Jones 1978: 12].
Degexit'an:possr=loː-ʔ1
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 35; Chapman 1914: 217. The variant loː- is attested in compounds.
Distinct from possr=qoːn 'arm' [Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 34; Chapman 1914: 230].
Distinct from possr=kàn-ɒ̀ʔ 'arm' [Hoijer & Joël 1963: 70].
Number:38
Word:head
Hupa:possr=eː=ta=ʔa-y1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 730; Golla 1996: 44. Literally 'it extends against smb.' < *=eː=ti=ʔa-i with the verbal root =ʔaː 'to extend'.
The old term possr=cʰeː 'head' is obsolete [Sapir & Golla 2001: 735] (specified as "a dialect form, generally replaced by possr=eː=ta=ʔa-y"). This root is also retained in compounds like possr=cʰeː-kʰʸiŋʔ 'back of the head' (literally ' base of head') [Sapir & Golla 2001: 735; Golla 1996: 44] or adverbial formations like naː-cʰeː 'ahead, first, preceding' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 735; Golla 1996: 3]. The shortened variant cʰi is attested as the first element of some compounds [Sapir & Golla 2001: 736], particularly cʰi=wa-ŋʔ 'hair' q.v.
Mattole:possr=cʰiʔ2
Li 1930: 131. The synchronic Mattole root is =cʰiʔ (not possr=cʰi-ʔ with the izafet exponent), as follows from the compounds possr=cʰiʔ-gˈaʔ 'head hair' q.v. [Li 1930: 126] (=ɣaʔ 'fur' with plosivization ɣ > g) and possr=siʔ-ɬˈoːɣ-eʔ 'brain' [Li 1930: 133] (with sporadic fricativization cʰ > s, for which see [Li 1930: 9 f.]).
Bear River dialect: possr=cʰiʔ ~ possr=siʔ 'head' [Goddard 1929: 317].
Kato:possr=siːʔ2
Goddard 1912: 22; Curtis 1924: 201.
Taldash Galice:possr=si-ʔ2
Hoijer 1973: 59; Hoijer 1956: 223; Landar 1977: 294. Polysemy: 'head / head hair'. Transcribed in [Hoijer 1956: 223] as =siː-ʔ; in [Landar 1977] as =sʸiː-ʔ. In compounds, the form siː- is used [Hoijer 1973: 59].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=kʰi=n=ʔi1
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96. A descriptive formation, which is translated in [Kari 1996: 61] as 'tip that extends'. Apparently =ʔi is a contraction from *=y=ʔu-i, i.e. the classificatory verb =ʔu 'to handle a single compact object' [Tenenbaum 1978: 132, 135; Holton et al. 2004: 40; Boraas 2010: 65, 118] with the imperfective exponent =z= (regularly > Upper Inlet =y=) or =n=ʔi < *=nǝ=ʔu-i with the imperfective exponent =nǝ=; in both cases final *-i is the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 144]. Initial kʰi= is thus the directional prefix 'at or to the end of something', for which see [Tenenbaum 1978: 180] (Inland dialect) and [Boraas 2010: 129] (Outer Inlet dialect).
For similar occasional contractions of nominalized *=ʔu-i, cf. the forms for 'heart', 'sun' q.v. and, e.g., the expression for 'fence' (literally 'linear extends in circle'): Upper Inlet χniqʰana=y=ʔi-y, Outer Inlet naqʰana=z=ʔu-yi, Inland niqʰana=z=ʔi-y [Kari 2007: 224].
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=n=ʁ=ʔi1
Kari 2007: 87, 351; Kari 1977: 96. An unclear descriptive formation. In [Kari 1996: 61], explained as "meaning uncertain, from 'linear extends'", which implies the same contracted nominalized form *=ʔu-i as in Upper Inlet Tanaina q.v., but with the perfective exponent =ʁ=.
Inland Tanaina:possr=cʰi ~ possr=n=cʰi2
Kari 2007: 87, 351. In [Kari 1977: 96; Wassillie 1979: 49], only the variant possr=cʰi is quoted.
Iliamna Tanaina:possr=n=cʰi2
Kari 2007: 87, 351. In [Kari 1977: 96], quoted as possr=cʰi.
Common Tanaina notes:
The old root for 'head' is still in use in Inland & Iliamna (=cʰi). In Upper Inlet and Outer Inlet, it was superseded with different descriptive formations, although cʰi 'head' is retained everywhere in such compounds as Upper Inlet cʰi=ʁu 'head hair' q.v., etc., and as the Outer Inlet verbal incorporated morpheme cʰi= ~ čʰi= 'head' [Boraas 2010: 125].
Central Ahtena:possr=cʰe-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 391, 533; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
Western Ahtena: possr=cʰe-ʔ [Kari 1990: 391, 533; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=cʰe-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 391, 533; Kari & Buck 1975: 60; Smelcer 2010: 44.
Common Ahtena notes:
In compounds, the variant cʰi- is attested.
Dogrib:possr=kʰʷì2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 44, 175.
North Slavey (Hare):possr=fí-ʔ2
Rice 1978: 54, 143; Hoijer 1956: 222. Hoijer adduces the 19th c. archaic variant {=kfwi}. As first element of compounds, the variant fí- is used.
Tanacross:possr=tθʰí-ʔ2
Arnold et al. 2009: 143; Holton 2000: 344; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 23; McRoy 1973: 7; Shinen 1958: 3.
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):possr=tθʰiː-ʔ2
Milanowski 2009: 26, 70, 75. Synchronously, =tθʰiː-ʔ with the izafet suffix (cf. the compounds like tθʰiː-šoː 'hat') and fossilized =tθʰiːʔ (cf. the compounds like tθʰiːʔ-cʰoː 'dragonfly').
Kari 1994: 312, 417. Variant tθʰi- is attested in compounds.
Central Carrier:possr=c̪ʰi2
Poser 1998/2013: 505, 751; Poser 2011a: 109; Antoine et al. 1974: 49, 312.
Koyukon:possr=ƛʰiː-ʔ2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 570, 926; Jones 1978: 78. Variants ƛʰiː- ~ ƛʰaː- ~ ƛʰuː- are attested in compounds.
Degexit'an:possr=tθʰeː-ʔ2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 32; Chapman 1914: 220. The variants tθʰeː-, tθʰǝ- are attested in compounds.
Sarsi:possr=cʰì-ʔ2
Hoijer & Joël 1963: 69; Hoijer 1956: 222.
Number:39
Word:hear
Hupa:=cʼeh1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 739; Golla 1996: 45; Golla 1970: 261. According to available sources, there are three ways in Hupa to express the semantics of hearing:
1) The enclitic -cʼeh (< *-cʼih) or -cʼiw (< *-cʼih-i), attached to the clause, which denotes the perceived act, see [Golla 1970: 261; Golla 1996: 45; Sapir & Golla 2001: 739]. The generic meaning of -cʼeh / -cʼiw is perception in general (e.g., feeling, taste), but the usual and most frequent meaning is simply 'hearing'. Examples for -cʼeh / -cʼiw 'it is heard' or 'subj hears it' are numerous, e.g.: "I hear (cʼeh) that bird crying; I feel (cʼeh) the salmon have come; I hear (cʼeh) Salmon's Grandmother crying" [Golla 1984: 15, 16], "And a kissing noise she heard (cʼeh)" [Goddard 1904: 111], "I hear (cʼeh) two (people)" [Goddard 1904: 170], "I heard (cʼiw) them get up" [Golla 1984: 13, 14], "Let me see what it was that I heard (cʼiw) doing something" [Golla 1984: 19, 22], "in that direction inside it someone was singing there she heard (cʼiw)" [Golla 1984: 28], "he sang along there she heard (cʼiw)" [Golla 1984: 29], "And he walking along a creek heard (cʼiw)" [Goddard 1904: 111], "he heard croak (cʼiw)" [Goddard 1904: 112], "it sounded he heard (cʼiw)" [Goddard 1904: 144], etc.
2) the adverb ʔaŋ-kʸaʔ ~ ʔuŋ-kʸaʔ (also plain kʸaʔ), glossed as 'seeing (with surprise), noticing (with surprise), unexpectedly, surprisingly, lo and behold!' [Golla 1996: 57, 93; Sapir & Golla 2001: 752], which is applied to the act of perception (seeing, hearing, etc.). Normally ʔaŋ-kʸaʔ ~ ʔuŋ-kʸaʔ is used together with the word that denotes perception. Examples for ʔaŋ-kʸaʔ ~ ʔuŋ-kʸaʔ with -cʼeh / -cʼiw in the meaning 'subj hears (it)' are numerous. E.g.: "Then I heard (ʔan-kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) something making a cracking noise going" [Golla 1984: 11], "Then in the middle of the night she heard (ʔan-kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) something uncertain making a noise" [Golla 1984: 18, 22], "As she was coming down the ridge towards Xonsahding, she heard (ʔan-kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) people crying downstream from Xonsahding. She thought, 'I hear (cʼeh) something there; let me go down there'" [Golla 1984: 21, 23], "Inside it she heard (ʔan=kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) someone was singing" [Golla 1984: 28], "He was surprised to hear (ʔun-kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) someone splitting logs" [Goddard 1904: 108], "As he walked along he heard (ʔun-kʸaʔ ... cʼiw) laughing" [Goddard 1904: 109], "In a hollow tree she heard (ʔun-kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) a baby rolling around" [Goddard 1904: 157], "when they came they heard (ʔun=kʸaʔ ... cʼeh) talking" [Goddard 1904: 170], etc. Sometimes the second element of the collocation ʔaŋ-kʸaʔ ... -cʼeh / -cʼiw can be omitted; two examples are found with the semantics of hearing: "Then she heard (ʔun-kʸaʔ) a baby crying" [Goddard 1904: 135], "he heard (ʔun-kʸaʔ) here he came running" [Goddard 1904: 360].
3) Finally, there is a predicative way to express the semantics of hearing with the verbs =ya 'to move' or =ʔa 'to extend': the descriptive collocations possr=eːtaʔay =ya 'smb.'s head moves to' [Golla 1996: 45] and possr=eːtaʔay =ʔa 'smb.'s head extends to'. Four examples have been found: "it was midnight and he heard (possr=eːtaʔay =ya) a jingling noise he heard (cʼiw)" [Goddard 1904: 293], "She heard (possr=eːtaʔay =ya) no longer the sound of the games and the talk of the Kixunai" [Goddard 1904: 306, 308], "She did not hear (possr=eːtaʔay =ya) their talk" [Goddard 1904: 307, 309], "Then she heard (possr=eːtaʔay =ʔa) (something)" [Golla 1984: 28].
The statistical analysis clearly shows that the most common way to express the semantics of hearing is the enclitic -cʼeh / -cʼiw.
The suppletive nasal counterpart =cʼaʔn (< perfective *cʼa-n-ʔ-i) functions as an inflected verb with the passive meaning 'to sound, be heard' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 737; Golla 1996: 45].
Cf. also a separate verb =niʍ 'to hear about smth.' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 779; Golla 1996: 45].
Mattole:=nix ~ =ni-t3
Li 1930: 96. Imperfective stem; the perfective stem is =ni-t.
Two Mattole verbs for 'to hear' are quoted in [Li 1930]: =nix and =cʼeh. The semantic difference between them is unclear (both are illustrated with examples like "I hear it"). We treat these verbs as synonyms.
Bear River dialect: not attested.
Kato:=cʼe-ɣ1
Goddard 1912: 73. The imperfective stems are =cʼeh < *=cʼex and =cʼeɣ < *=cʼex-i. The suppletive perfective stem is =cʼan ~ =cʰaŋ ~ =saŋ [Goddard 1912: 73; Goddard 1909: 106 No. 9]. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen'. Note the sporadic shift cʼ > cʰ in the perfective stem.
Taldash Galice:=cʼeː1
Hoijer 1973: 70 No. 269; Hoijer 1956: 223. Suppletive paradigm: =cʼeː [imperf.] / =cʼã-ʔ < *=cʼan-ʔ [perf.]. The separate verb for 'to listen' is based on the n-root: =cʼãː [imperf.] / =cʼã-ʔ [imperf.], see [Hoijer 1973: 70 No. 268].
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Not attested properly. The only known context is: "we heard news from home", where the verb =nǝx is used [Boraas 2010: 47].
Inland Tanaina:=nǝx3
Wassillie 1979: 49, 59. Cf. also the examples: "they heard him" [Tenenbaum 1978: 148], "I heard something" [Tenenbaum 1978: 190]. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen'. Paradigm: =nǝx [imperf.] / =nik [perf.].
Iliamna Tanaina:
Not attested.
Common Tanaina notes:
Cf. =nǝx [imperf.] / =nǝk [perf.] 'to hear' in the examples from Lovick's fieldwork (dialect is not specified): "I can't hear him" [Lovick 2005: 68 ex. 3.3a-b], "I heard them" [Lovick 2005: 185 ex. 5.21b].
Central Ahtena:=cʼaːn1
Kari 1990: 399, 534.
Lower Ahtena: =cʼaːn [Kari 1990: 399, 534].
Western Ahtena: =cʼaːn [Kari 1990: 399, 534].
Mentasta Ahtena:=cʼãː1
Kari 1990: 399, 534.
Common Ahtena notes:
In [Kari 1990: 399], the momentaneous aspect sub-paradigm =cʼiː-s [imperf.] / =cʼaːn [perf.] is quoted with the polysemy: 'to hear / to listen / to understand', whereas the suppletive neutral aspect imperfect =cʼaq [imperf.] is glossed specifically 'to listen to, understand'. Examples for the meaning 'to hear' (momentaneous aspect): "I heard you", "he heard a shot", "he didn't hear anything", etc.
There is also a second expression for 'to hear' (all dialects?): obj=e=ta=t=0=niːkʸ with two examples "we hear a noise up above", "I heard a noise" [Kari 1990: 309, 534]. This contains the very common and productive verbal root =niː-s [imperf.] / =niːkʸ [perf.], which, among its other meanings, expresses various aspects of feeling and sensing [Kari 1990: 306 ff.].
Dogrib:=kʼʷṍ2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26, 125, 175. Polysemy: 'to hear / to hear of / to listen / to understand'. Cf. the examples for 'to hear': "We hear him" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 26], "Yesterday I heard my younger brother talking to his little brother" [Saxon & Siemens 1996: 125].
North Slavey (Hare):=h=ʔõ̀ ~ =h=wʼõ̀2
Rice 1978: 380, 409, 510. Paradigm: =h=ʔĩ̀ ~ =h=wʼĩ̀ [imperf.] / =h=ʔõ̀ ~ =h=wʼõ̀ [perf.]. In [Hoijer 1956: 222], the 19th c. archaic variant =kʼʷey is quoted, which apparently corresponds to modern =h=ʔĩ̀ ~ =h=wʼĩ̀. Polysemy: 'to hear / to hear about / to listen'. Cf. the examples: "I heard him singing", "Listen to me", "You shouldn't listen to histories" [Rice 1978: 380], "we heard crying", "we heard voices" [Rice 1989: 182], "I was sure I heard a knock on the door" [Rice 1989: 362], "we heard someone singing in there" [Rice 1989: 1226], "I can't hear well" [Rice 1989: 1101], "I heard you talking outside" [Rice 1989: 1231], "did you hear where he is living?" [Rice 1989: 1245], "I heard that she sings well" [Rice 1989: 1247], "I heard that he is living in Colville Lake" [Rice 1989: 1251].
Distinct from the rarely used verb =ƛì which is glossed as 'to hear the sound of' [Rice 1978: 423] with the following examples: "I heard someone coming", "I heard her singing" [Rice 1978: 246], "I hear the grouse dancing" [Rice 1978: 202].
Tanacross:=tθʼèk1
Arnold et al. 2009: 144; Holton 2000: 350; Shinen 1958: 43. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen'; for 'to listen', cf. the example "I'm listening to something" [Holton 2000: 253].
A second verb for 'to listen' is cíː-...-ʔàh [Arnold et al. 2009: 166], literally 'to extend the inner ear' with possr=cìː 'inner ear, hearing' [Arnold et al. 2009: 106; Holton 2000: 344].
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):=tθʼak1
Milanowski 2009: 98, 100. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen'.
Lower Tanana (Minto):=ɬ=tθʼʌn̥2
Kari 1994: 319, 417; Tuttle 2009: 98, 120. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen / to understand'. Paradigm: =ɬ=tθʼʌn̥ [imperf.] / =ɬ=tθʼʌn-ʔ [perf.] / =ɬ=tθʼi-ɬ [fut.].
Distinct from the more rare and specific verb obj=...=nik glossed with polysemy: 'to hear the sound of obj. / to make a noise' [Kari 1994: 216].
Distinct from =tθʼǝk 'to listen / to understand' [Kari 1994: 320, 431].
Central Carrier:=c̪ʼo2
Poser 1998/2013: 752, 1223, 1263; Antoine et al. 1974: 312. Cf. the cognate verb =ɬ=c̪ʼai 'to listen' [Poser 1998/2013: 792, 1263; Antoine et al. 1974: 317].
Koyukon:=ƛʼoːn̥2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 610, 927; Jones 1978: 78. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen / to understand / to obey'. Paradigm: =ƛʼoːn̥ [neuter imperf.] / =ƛʼoːn-ʔ [neuter perf.] / =ƛʼiː-y̥ (< *=ƛʼoːn-y) [momentaneous imperf.] / =ƛʼoːn̥ [momentaneous perf.]. The suppletive perfect form of the customary aspect: =ƛʼiːq [customary perf.] (quoted as =ƛʼiːk in [Jetté & Jones 2000]; this looks like a typo).
Distinct from =niːk [perf.] 'to feel' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 449], and in particular 'to hear obj (sound, animal calling), become aware of obj by hearing' [Jetté & Jones 2000: 452].
Degexit'an:=tθʼoːn̥2
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1976: 59; Chapman 1914: 220. Paradigm: =tθʼoːn̥ [imperf.] / =tθʼoːn-ʔ [perf.] / =tθʼeː-ɬ [fut.]. Polysemy: 'to hear / to listen'. Cf. some examples: "I heard the bell", "I hear an echo", "What do you hear?" [Taff et al. 2007], "All at once she heard (=tθʼoːn̥) - it was the name of her husband. She listened (=tθʼoːn̥), and looked at him" [Chapman 1914: 127], "A young man is paddling along. As if expecting to hear (=tθʼeː-ɬ) something, he turns his head and listens (=tθʼoːn̥)" [Chapman 1914: 157].
The suppletive imperfective stem =tθʼǝq 'to hear' [Kari 1976: 59] has only been found either with negation: "She doesn't hear", "I can't hear Beth", "Something isn't hearing anything" [Taff et al. 2007], "Still she weeps, and does not hear him" [Chapman 1914: 127]; or in the positive meaning 'to know, understand': "He understands Degexit'an" [Taff et al. 2007].
Li 1930: 11, 50, 57 sub No. 20, 110. The imperfective stems are =cʼeh < *=cʼex and =cʼiɣ < *=cʼex-i [Li 1930: 23]; the suppletive perfective stem is =cʼaːʔn < *=cʼan-ʔ-i (for such a morphological pattern see [Li 1930: 29]). The separate verb for 'to listen' is based on the n-variant: imperfective =cʼaŋ < *=cʼan and =cʼaːn < *=cʼan-i, perfective =cʼaːʔn < *=cʼan-ʔ-i [Li 1930: 110].
Kato:=cʼan ~ =cʰaŋ ~ =saŋ2
Perfective.
Taldash Galice:=cʼã-ʔ2
Perfective.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:=nik3
Perfective.
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
Number:39
Word:hear
Hupa:
Mattole:=cʼaːʔn2
Perfective.
Kato:
Taldash Galice:
Upper Inlet Tanaina:
Outer Inlet Tanaina:
Inland Tanaina:
Iliamna Tanaina:
Central Ahtena:
Mentasta Ahtena:
Dogrib:
North Slavey (Hare):
Tanacross:
Upper Tanana (Tetlin):
Lower Tanana (Minto):
Central Carrier:
Koyukon:
Degexit'an:
Sarsi:
Number:40
Word:heart
Hupa:possr=kʰʸan-sa-ʔaː-n1
Sapir & Golla 2001: 757; Golla 1996: 45. In [Golla 1996], quoted with -kʰʸun-. Literally 'the round object that lies smb.’s insides' with the anatomical term possr=kʰʸaːn-eʔ ~ =kʰʸaːn-e ~ =kʰʸaŋ~ =kʰʸuŋ 'insides, entrails, abdomen, stomach' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 757; Golla 1996: 50] and the classificatory verb =ʔaː-n 'to handle a round object' [Sapir & Golla 2001: 731; Golla 1977: 357].
Mattole:possr=čˈiːy-eʔ2
Li 1930: 131.
Bear River dialect: possr=čiʔ-e 'heart' [Goddard 1929: 317].
Kato:possr=čiː-ʔ2
Goddard 1912: 22; Curtis 1924: 201.
Taldash Galice:possr=siːy-eʔ2
Hoijer 1973: 59; Hoijer 1956: 223. The contracted form possr=siː-ʔ is also attested in some constructions [Hoijer 1973: 68 No. 181, 73 No. 331]. The variant siːʔ- is also used in the compound siːʔ-cʼiːteʔ 'sorrow' (literally 'sick hearted') [Hoijer 1973: 59] - a result of secondary reanalysis of the possessed form.
Upper Inlet Tanaina:possr=kʰu-y-ʔi-n1
Kari 2007: 95, 351; Kari 1977: 104.
Outer Inlet Tanaina:possr=kʰu-z-ʔi-n1
Kari 2007: 95, 351; Kari 1977: 104. Two Outer Inlet terms are quoted as synonyms by Kari.
Inland Tanaina:possr=kʰu-z-ʔi-n1
Kari 2007: 95, 351; Kari 1977: 104; Wassillie 1979: 49.
Both possr=kʰu-z-ʔi-n (with regular z > Upper Inlet y) and possr=iqʼti are secondary descriptive formations, applied to humans as well as animals, although not to fish (see [Kari 2007: 25] for specific descriptive terms for 'fish heart').
=kʰu-z-ʔi-n (Upper Inlet -y- for -z-) is explained in [Kari 2007: 95] as 'object inside', but a more accurate literal translation is 'it lies in smb.'s abdomen/entrails'. As follows from the Ahtena form q.v., =ʔi-n represents a contraction from *=ʔu-n-i, i.e., the classificatory verb =ʔu, perfective =ʔu-n 'to handle a single compact object' [Tenenbaum 1978: 132, 135; Holton et al. 2004: 40; Boraas 2010: 65, 118] with the imperfective exponent =z= and the relative nominalizer -(ʔ)i / -(y)i [Kari 2007: 329; Boraas 2010: 17, 144]. For similar contractions of nominalized *=ʔu-i cf. notes on Upper Inlet Tanaina 'head'.
Initial kʰu= is the reduced variant of possr=kʰun 'inner abdomen'; cf. kʰu-qʰiltu-yi 'pregnant animal (= it has one in its abdomen)' and so on, see notes on 'belly' for details.
In turn, =iqʼ-t-i literally means 'on the inside' [Kari 2007: 95] or 'within the inside' with possr=iqʼ 'smth's inside' [Kari 2007: 95; Tenenbaum 1978: 206; Boraas 2010: 27], final -i can be the postposition -i 'in obj, inside obj, as inside a enclosure or closed container' [Tenenbaum 1978: 206; Boraas 2010: 27], medial -t- is unclear. It should be noted that =iqʼti looks like a more archaic word for 'heart', because it is used in the expressions for 'heartbeat' and 'heart attack', attested in all the dialects [Kari 2007: 95, 100].
The old root 'heart' is retained as Tanaina čay in Upper Inlet kʼ=cay-a, Outer Inlet kʼ=čay-ʔa 'inner basket (part of fish trap)', lit. 'smbd.'s heart' (with possessive kʼ= and the izafet exponent -a) [Kari 2007: 218].
Central Ahtena:possr=kʰʸ=i=z=ʔaː-n-i1
Kari 1990: 71, 534; Kari & Buck 1975: 68; Smelcer 2010: 49.
Western Ahtena: possr=kʰʸ=e=z=ʔaː-n-i [Kari 1990: 71, 534; Kari & Buck 1975: 68; Smelcer 2010: 49].
Mentasta Ahtena:possr=ceːy-ʔ2
Kari 1990: 170, 534; Kari & Buck 1975: 68; Smelcer 2010: 49.
Common Ahtena notes:
The old root =ceːy- 'heart' is retained with the polysemy: 'heart / inner basket of fish trap' in Mentasta, but only with the latter meaning in other dialects. Reduced variants ce- / ci- are also attested in some compounds, like possr=ce-nases 'fat around the heart' (all dialects) etc.
In the non-Mentasta dialects, 'heart' is expressed by the new formation =kʰʸ=i=z=ʔaː-n-i, literally 'compact object lies in smb.'s abdomen' from the very productive classificatory verb =ʔaː-n [imperf.] / =ʔa-ʔ [perf.] 'to handle a compact object' [Kari 1990: 70] and kʰʸa= - the reduced incorporated variant of kʰʸaːn 'viscera, abdomen' [Kari 1990: 110].
Dogrib:possr=cèː2
Saxon & Siemens 1996: 40, 175.
North Slavey (Hare):possr=cié-ʔ2
Rice 1978: 52, 144; Hoijer 1956: 222.
Tanacross:possr=cěːy-ʔ2
Arnold et al. 2009: 144; Holton 2000: 344; Brean & Milanowski 1979: 23; McRoy 1973: 10; Shinen 1958: 3.
Kari 1994: 98, 418. The expression for 'chest', possr=ay̥-tǝ-ɣʌn-aʔ q.v., is based on this root. The shortened morpheme a- 'chest / heart' is used as the first element of various compounds [Kari 1994: 97].
In the Chena dialect: possr=cay-aʔ 'heart' [Kari 1994: 98].
Central Carrier:possr=ci2
Poser 1998/2013: 152, 752; Poser 2011a: 110; Antoine et al. 1974: 21, 312.
Koyukon:possr=caːy-ǝʔ2
Jetté & Jones 2000: 165, 927; Jones 1978: 78.
Degexit'an:possr=yeːqʼǝ-d3
Taff et al. 2007; Kari 1978: 36; Chapman 1914: 210. Cannot be separated from Tanaina possr=iqʼ-t-i 'heart', literally 'within the inside', although the presumed stem =yeːqʼ 'inside' is not attested in Degexit'an; final -d is apparently the same locative suffix as Koyukon -t.
Sarsi:
No expressions for 'heart' are documented reliably. In [Hoijer 1956: 222], the unclear form possr=càɣàní 'heart' is quoted, not confirmed by other sources.
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