This feature allows to generate a graphic representation of the supposed genetic relationships between the language set included in the database, in the form of a genealogical tree (it is also implemented in the StarLing software). The tree picture also includes separation dates for various languages, calculated through standardized glottochronological techniques; additionally, a lexicostatistical matrix of cognate percentages can be produced if asked for.
The tree can be generated by a variety of methods, and you can modify some of the parameters to test various strategies of language classification. The pictures can be saved in different graphic formats and used for presentation or any other purposes.
This option displays the full description for the selected database, including: (a) the complete list of primary and secondary bibliographical sources for the included languages, including brief descriptions of all titles; (b) general notes on said languages, e. g. sociolinguistic information, degree of reliability of sources, notes on grammatical and lexical peculiarities of the languages that may be relevant for the compilation of the lists, etc.; (c) details on the transcription system that was used in the original data sources and its differences from the UTS (Unified Transcription System) transliteration.
This option, when checked, uses a set of different color markers to highlight groups of phonetically similar words in different languages with the same Swadesh meaning.
Phonetic similarity between two different forms is defined in the GLD as a situation in which the aligned consonants of the compared forms (usually the first two) are deemed «similar» to each other. In order for two consonants to be «similar», they have to belong to the same «consonantal class», i.e. a group of sounds that share the same place and a similar manner of articulation. The current grouping of sounds into sound classes can be found here.
Accordingly, the aligned forms undergo a process of «vowel extraction» (all vowels are formally assumed to belong to «class H», together with «weak» laryngeal phonemes), and the individual consonants are then converted to classes, e. g. dog → TK, drink → TRNK (in comparisons, only the first two consonants will be used, so, actually TR), eat → HT (word-initial vowel is equated with lack of consonant or «weak» consonant), fly → PR (l and r belong to the same class) and so on.
If both of the first two consonants of the compared forms are found to correlate, i.e. belong to the same class, the words are deemed similar (e. g. English fly and German fliegen both have the consonantal skeleton PR). If at least one differs, the words are not deemed similar (e. g. English tooth → TT and Old Norse tɔnn → TN, although they are etymological cognates, will not pass the similarity tense because of the second position).
In most cases, checking this option will highlight phonetically similar forms that are also etymological cognates and share the same numeric cognation indexes. Occasionally, however, the checking will also yield «false positives» (accidentally phonetically similar forms that do not share a common origin) and «false negatives» (phonetically dissimilar forms, not highlighted, but actually cognate). It should be noted that one should never expect this method to yield a 100% accurate picture of etymological cognacy. Rather, the method is useful for the following goals: (a) assess the amount of phonetic change that took place between related languages; (b) give a general idea of the degree of closeness of relationship for those languages where phonetic correspondences have not yet been properly established; (c) assess the average number of «chance similarities» that may arise between different languages.
The last task is particularly instructive if the «Highlight...» option is used between two different languages from different databases, i.e. not related to each other or distantly related: in most cases, it will yield around 2-3 accidental color highlights, but occasionally, the count may go as high up as 5 or 6.
This option unfolds all of the notes that accompany the individual forms in the database. Sometimes these notes only consist of a basic reference to the bibliographical source, but at other times, they can be quite expansive, which makes browsing through the wordlist quite cumbersome. By default, the notes stay hidden (each note can also be opened separately by clicking on the sign next to the word).
Applegate 2007: 312. Polysemy: 'bark / husk'. Morphophonologically, sʰol may go back to *s=hol or *s=sol with fossilized third person possessor prefix s= [Applegate 1972: 242]. Secondary synonyms: paχ 'skin / bark (of tree when smooth) / shell (of egg) / complexion' [Applegate 2007: 268]; šunayʼ 'bark, sheet of bark' [Applegate 2007: 347].
Applegate 2007: 230. Glossed as 'belly, stomach'. Alternative candidate: ʔaqšʼɨwʼ 'gut(s) / belly / innards / intestine(s)', derived from the verb aqšɨw 'to gut, ream out' (glottalization of the final consonant marks nominalization) [Applegate 2007: 69].
Applegate 2007: 250. Glossed as 'something large or big'. According to [Applegate 1972: 191], "[t]he quantifier nox 'a large one, a lot' occurs occasionally in apposition with a noun".
Whistler 1980: 7. Plural: čwʼiw=čwʼˈiwʼ. The graphic sequence {ch'w} in {chwi'w ~ ch'wi'w} and {ch'wiwch'wí'w} can be alternatively interpreted as /čʼw/ or /čwʼ/.
Applegate 2007: 304. Cf. sʰe 'bone outside of the body' ("someone's bone": s= 3rd person marker + se) [ibid.], isʰe 'a bone not as part of one's own body' (is= 'one's own' + se) [Applegate 2007: 305].
Whistler 1980: 20. Derived from nɨ 'fire' [ibid.]. Alternative candidate: s=iχut 'to burn (transitive) / to set fire to' [Whistler 1980: 26], derived from iχut (see below). Distinct from iχut 'to burn (intransitive)' [Whistler 1980: 12].
Whistler 1980: 26. Polysemy: 'fingernail / claw'. Plural: siχ=siχwʼˈayʼ. The graphic sequence {xʼw} in {sixsixʼwáʼy} can be alternatively interpreted as /χʼw/ or /χwʼ/.
Applegate 2007: 261. Glossed as 'to be cold (said of things)'. Apparently contains noun formative ʔaχ= (> ʔoχ= by vowel harmony) rather than the verbal formative aχ=. Distinct from aχ=cʼacʼaχ 'to be cold (said of weather)' [Applegate 2007: 84] and toχomʼ 'to be or feel cold (said of people)' [Applegate 2007: 383]. Related to noun ʔoχ=tokowʼ 'ice / hail / hailstone / cold(ness)' [Applegate 2007: 261].
Whistler 1980: 18. Polysemy: 'to go / to come'. Alternative candidates: yitʼi 'to come' [Whistler 1980: 42], akti=nʼa 'to come / to come this way / to come over' [Whistler 1980: 1], kumi ~ kum 'to arrive / to come to / to go to / to approach' [Whistler 1980: 14].
Applegate 2007: 67. Polysemy: 'to die / be dead'. Secondary synonyms: kina=wil 'to die' ("much less common a word than aqšan") < kina= verb prefix 'death or unconsciousness' + wil 'to be, exist' [Applegate 2007: 178]; pleʔ 'to disappear / to die, perish / to be bushed, exhausted' [Applegate 2007: 277]; s=uti=peqʼen 'to die, breathe one's last' < su= verb prefix 'applying; gathering' + uti= verb prefix 'quickly, suddenly; of a fall, blow' + peqʼen 'to stop, come to an end' [Applegate 2007: 327]. According to [Applegate 1972: 359], the prefix kina= 'of dying' is "evidently related to the verb kinat, attested once in /s-kinat-us/ 'he died along with her'".
Applegate 2007: 128. This is an areal word, attested in a number of neighbouring languages: Mutsun xučekniʂ ‘dog’, Chalon xučekniʂ ‘dog’, Rumsen xučːiys ‘dog’, Esselen hučumas ‘dog’, Antoniaño Salinan xuč (pl. xostén) ‘dog’, Migueleño Salinan xučaːi ‘dog’. Since other Chumash languages have a different word for 'dog', we mark this item as a loanword.
Applegate 2007: 64. The formative aq= in this verb possibly means 'with the mouth' [Applegate 1972: 257]. The word also contains an archaic derivative suffix -l, the remaining part =mi- being identical with the word for 'water' in Island Chumash (cf. wɨ 'deer', wɨ-l 'to hunt, shoot') [Applegate 1972: 282].
Applegate 2007: 60. Glossed as 'to be dry'. Secondary synonyms: kʼɨmɨn 'to be dry' (in the dialect of the village of kalawašaqʼ; aqawan is more common) [Applegate 2007: 181], kʼolowoy 'to be dry' (less common than aqawan) [Applegate 2007: 184].
Whistler 1980: 6. Polysemy: 'to dry (transitive) / to be dry, dried up'. Alternative candidate: qʼɨwɨn 'to be dry / (tide) to be out, (tide) to be low' [Whistler 1980: 25]. This word is given by Whistler with a question sign in parentheses, which apparently means that its phonological shape is uncertain.
Build treei