This feature allows to generate a graphic representation of the supposed genetic relationships between the language set included in the database, in the form of a genealogical tree (it is also implemented in the StarLing software). The tree picture also includes separation dates for various languages, calculated through standardized glottochronological techniques; additionally, a lexicostatistical matrix of cognate percentages can be produced if asked for.
The tree can be generated by a variety of methods, and you can modify some of the parameters to test various strategies of language classification. The pictures can be saved in different graphic formats and used for presentation or any other purposes.
This option displays the full description for the selected database, including: (a) the complete list of primary and secondary bibliographical sources for the included languages, including brief descriptions of all titles; (b) general notes on said languages, e. g. sociolinguistic information, degree of reliability of sources, notes on grammatical and lexical peculiarities of the languages that may be relevant for the compilation of the lists, etc.; (c) details on the transcription system that was used in the original data sources and its differences from the UTS (Unified Transcription System) transliteration.
This option, when checked, uses a set of different color markers to highlight groups of phonetically similar words in different languages with the same Swadesh meaning.
Phonetic similarity between two different forms is defined in the GLD as a situation in which the aligned consonants of the compared forms (usually the first two) are deemed «similar» to each other. In order for two consonants to be «similar», they have to belong to the same «consonantal class», i.e. a group of sounds that share the same place and a similar manner of articulation. The current grouping of sounds into sound classes can be found here.
Accordingly, the aligned forms undergo a process of «vowel extraction» (all vowels are formally assumed to belong to «class H», together with «weak» laryngeal phonemes), and the individual consonants are then converted to classes, e. g. dog → TK, drink → TRNK (in comparisons, only the first two consonants will be used, so, actually TR), eat → HT (word-initial vowel is equated with lack of consonant or «weak» consonant), fly → PR (l and r belong to the same class) and so on.
If both of the first two consonants of the compared forms are found to correlate, i.e. belong to the same class, the words are deemed similar (e. g. English fly and German fliegen both have the consonantal skeleton PR). If at least one differs, the words are not deemed similar (e. g. English tooth → TT and Old Norse tɔnn → TN, although they are etymological cognates, will not pass the similarity tense because of the second position).
In most cases, checking this option will highlight phonetically similar forms that are also etymological cognates and share the same numeric cognation indexes. Occasionally, however, the checking will also yield «false positives» (accidentally phonetically similar forms that do not share a common origin) and «false negatives» (phonetically dissimilar forms, not highlighted, but actually cognate). It should be noted that one should never expect this method to yield a 100% accurate picture of etymological cognacy. Rather, the method is useful for the following goals: (a) assess the amount of phonetic change that took place between related languages; (b) give a general idea of the degree of closeness of relationship for those languages where phonetic correspondences have not yet been properly established; (c) assess the average number of «chance similarities» that may arise between different languages.
The last task is particularly instructive if the «Highlight...» option is used between two different languages from different databases, i.e. not related to each other or distantly related: in most cases, it will yield around 2-3 accidental color highlights, but occasionally, the count may go as high up as 5 or 6.
This option unfolds all of the notes that accompany the individual forms in the database. Sometimes these notes only consist of a basic reference to the bibliographical source, but at other times, they can be quite expansive, which makes browsing through the wordlist quite cumbersome. By default, the notes stay hidden (each note can also be opened separately by clicking on the sign next to the word).
Some examples are: {fugite omnes, abite et de via decedite} "fly all of you, be off, and get out of the way" [Curc. 281]; {At ego deos quaeso, ut quidquid in illo vidulost, si aurum si argentum est, omne id ut fiat cinis} "Then I pray the Gods that whatever's in that wallet, whether it's gold, or whether silver, it may all become ashes" [Rud. 1266-1267].
Distinct from tˈoːt-ʊs {totus} 'all (whole, ganz)', cf. {Timeo quid rerum gesserim, ita dorsus totus prurit} "I fear for the thing I have done; my back does so tingle all over" [Mil. 397]; {quas hodie adulescens Diabolus ipsi daturus dixit, ut hanc ne quoquam mitteret nisi ad se hunc annum totum} "the young man, Diabolus, declared that he would give her this day, in order that she mightn't send her anywhere, for this whole year" [Asin. 634-635].
It seems that in Apuleius' times the classical distinction between {omnis} and {totus} had already been lost and they were used interchangeably, cf. the following examples: {tergus omne rasura studiosa tenuamus et minuto cinere perspersum soli siccandum tradimus} "we flayed the whole skin neatly, sprinkled it with fine ash, and pegged it in the sun to dry" [Met. 4: 14]; {ceteram vero carnem omnem operariorum cenae reserva} "throw his guts to the dogs but keep the rest of the meat for our meal" [Met. 7: 22]; {et in extimis palmulis perdito numero toti digiti coguntur in singulas ungulas} "my fingers and toes merged with hands and feet, squeezing together into individual hooves" [Met. 3: 24]; {Namque ille alius asinus divinato et antecapto meo cogitatu statim se mentita lassitudine cum rebus totis offudit} "The other ass somehow divined and anticipated my scheme, pretending to exhaustion and falling to the ground with his load" [Met. 4: 5]; {eiusque probe nudatum carnibus corium servatis sollerter totis unguibus} "we carefully stripped the flesh from the hide, taking care to keep the claws" [Met. 4: 14]; {et profusa in medium sportula iubet officialem suum insuper pisces inscendere ac pedibus suis totos obterere} "and he emptied my basket out on the pavement, and ordered an assistant to crush them to pulp with his feet" [Met. 1: 25]. We include both terms in the list.
Capidan 1935: 297. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)'. Cf.: {tots alb, i̯eɫ negru} "all are white, he is black", {toată lumea} "all the world" [Capidan 1928: 152].
Papahagi 1963: 1059-1060; Cunia 2010: 1052; Dalametra 1906: 212; Bara et al. 2005: 118; Goɫąb 1984: 256. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)'. Cf.: {tuţ voĭ si sicáţ} "if you all are exhausted" [Papahagi 1963: 1059]; {tùtă casa lîvîșìaști} "he dirties all the house" [Dalametra 1906: 123].
DER 2004: 25; Bolocan et al. 1985: 120; Gancz 2015. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)'. Cf. {toată lumea} "all the world" and {voi toţi} "all of you" [DER 2004: 25]. Moldavian: tot {tot} 'all' [Podiko 1973: 64; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 38].
Decorte 2015; Virili 2015; Pirona 1871: 707, 147. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {dut il mont} "all the world"; {dutis lis stelis} "all the stars" [Decorte 2015].
DILF 2001: 339-340. Polysemy 'all (omnis) / all (totus)': {duta la jent} "all the people" (literally: "all the folk"); {duc i dis} "all the days" [DILF 2001: 340].
Cadruvi 2015; Decurtins 2015. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {Tut las steilas} "All the stars" [Cadruvi 2015] and {tutta notg} "All the night" [Decurtins 2015].
Conrad 2015; Vital 2015; Pallioppi & Pallioppi 1895: 781. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {Tuot las stailas} "All the stars" and {Tuot la terra} "All the earth" [Conrad 2015].
Ercolani 1960: 466. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {tot i ẓug} "all the colors" [Ercolani 1960: 92] and {tot e mēş tond} "all the month". Marchigiano: tut {tutt} 'all' [Pucci 2015].
Tosi 2015; Gasparini 2015; Tre 2015; Melon 2015; Busato 2015; Cortiana 2015; Ricchieri 2015; Clementi 2015; Serena 2015; Pezzin 2015; Zanetti 2015. Salgareda: tut {tut} 'all' [Poletto 2015]. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {tute ɫe steɫe} "all the stars" and {tuta ɫa tera} "all the earth" [Tosi 2015; Gasparini 2015; Poletto 2015; Busato 2015; Serena 2015]; {tute le stele} "all the stars" and {tuta la tera} "all the earth" [Clementi 2015; Pezzin 2015]. In the Paduan and Salgareda dialects can be emphasized by adding the term kwˈaŋt-o {quanto}, cf. {El ga copà tuti i animaɫi} "He has killed all animals" and {Sti omani i xe tutifradeɫi} "All these men are brothers", but {El ga tirà basso tuti quanti i albari} "He has cut down all the trees" [Tre 2015].
Polysemy: 'all (omnis)' / 'all (totus)', cf. the following examples: {Elle giacean per terra tutte quante} "They all were lying prone upon the earth" [Inf. 6]; {per tutto il tempo che 'l foco li abbruscia} "for all the time the fire is burning them" [Purg. 25].
Passerini Tosi 1989: 1330. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {tutto il cibo fu mangiato} "all the food was eaten" and {tutti gli uomini sono uguali} "all men are equal" [Passerini Tosi 1989: 1330]. Distinct from intˈer-o {intero} 'whole, entire' [Passerini Tosi 1989: 592].
Monti Barnocchi-Moscati 2016. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {tutte le stelle} "all the stars" and {tutta la terra} "all the earth" [Monti Barnocchi-Moscati 2016].
Ballicu 2015; Pintus 2015; Casciu 2006: 436. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {tottus is istedhas} "all the stars" and {totta sa terra} "all the earth" [Ballicu 2015]. Domus de Maria: tˈotː-u {tottu} 'all' [Fadda 2015].
Messina 2015; Ornato 2015; La Bua 2015. Polysemy: ˈall (omnis) / all (totus)ˈ, cf. {tutti 'i stiddi} "all the stars" and {tutta 'a tierra} "all the earth" [Messina 2015; Ornato 2015]. Buscemese: tˈutː-u {tuttu} 'all' [Coccimiglio 2016].
Salzano 2015; Stornanti 2015; Sorbello 2015. Polysemy: ˈall (omnis) / all (totus)ˈ, cf. {tutti i stiddi} "all the stars" and {tutta a tera} "all the earth" [Salzano 2015; Stornanti 2015; Sorbello 2015].
Corsaro 2015; La Mattina 2015; Salerno 2015. Polysemy: ˈall (omnis) / all (totus)ˈ, cf. {tutti li stiddi} "all the stars" and {tutta la terra} "all the earth" [Corsaro 2015].
Leggio 2015; Miccichè 2015. Polysemy: ˈall (omnis) / all (totus)ˈ, cf. {tutti i stiddi} "all the stars" and {tutta 'a terra} "all the earth" [Leggio 2015].
Alòs i Font 2015; Llorens 2015; EDCC 1993: 278. Polysemy: ˈall (omnis) / all (totus)ˈ, cf. {totes les estrelles} "all the stars" and {tota la terra} "all the earth" [Alòs i Font 2015].
Montagut 2015; Balletbò 2015. Polysemy: ˈall (omnis) / all (totus)ˈ, cf. {totes les estrelles} "all the stars" and {tota la terra} "all the earth" [Montagut 2015; Balletbò 2015].
Pérez i Sanchis 2015. Polysemy: ˈall (omnis) / all (totus)ˈ, cf. {totes les estreles} "all the stars" and {tota la terra} "all the earth" [Pérez i Sanchis 2015].
Pedrós 2015. Polysemy: ˈall (omnis) / all (totus)ˈ, cf. tˈot-ez lez=estɾˈɛɫ-es {totes les estreles} "all the stars" and tˈot-a la=tˈɛr-a {tota la terra} "all the earth" [Pedrós 2015].
Voinova et al. 1989: 60-61. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {de todos os lados} "from all sides" and {em todo o mundo} "in all the world" [Voinova et al. 1989: 60-61].
Montoya Bolaños 2015; Fernández Armesto 1981: 707; Carré Alvarellos 1972: 1032, 835-836. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {todas as estrelas} "all the stars" and {toda a Terra} "all the Earth" [Montoya Bolaños 2015].
Coupier 1995: 1414-1415. Polysemy: ˈall (omnis) / all (totus)ˈ, cf. {tóut ils ome} "all the men" [Coupier 1995: 1414-1415] and {touto la niue} "all the night" [Coupier 1995: 1414].
Does not have a separate entry in the EDCT, but occurs in numerous examples, from other entries. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {tot son aé} "all his life" and {toz les jorz de son ahé}"all the days of his life" [EDCT 2014: 16].
Robert-Collins 1989: 15-16; Rayevskaya 2013: 356. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. the examples: {tous les habitants} 'all the inhabitants' [Rayevskaya 2013: 356] and {toute ma vie} 'all my life' [Robert-Collins 1989: 15-16].
Mahin 2016. Polysemy: 'all (omnis) / all (totus)', cf. {toutes lès stwâyes} 'all the stars' and {toute la tère} 'all the earth'. Rifondou: tɔ {tot} 'all' ({totes les stoeles} 'all the stars', {tote li tere} 'all the earth').
Genitive form: kˈɪnɛr-ɪs {cineris}. The examples are: {At ego deos quaeso, ut quidquid in illo vidulost, si aurum si argentum est, omne id ut fiat cinis} "Then I pray the Gods that whatever's in that wallet, whether it's gold, or whether silver, it may all become ashes" [Rud. 1266-1267]; {Optimo iure infringatur aula cineris in caput} [Amph. 1034d]; {Nam quid id refert mea, an aula quassa cum cinere effossus siet?} "What matters it to me, pray, if it had been knocked out by a broken pot with cinders in it?" [Curc. 395-396]; {edepol huius sermo haud cinerem quaeritat} "I' faith, her language stands in need of no ashes" [Mil. 1000].
Some examples are: {tergus omne rasura studiosa tenuamus et minuto cinere perspersum soli siccandum tradimus} "we flayed the whole skin neatly, sprinkled it with fine ash, and pegged it in the sun to dry" [Met. 4: 14]; {Nam corium adfirmavit cineris inspersum dominis referemus eiusque mortem de lupo facile mentiemur} "We can stiffen the hide by rubbing ashes on it, take it back to the master, and say he was killed by a wolf " [Met. 7: 22].
Capidan 1935: 94. There are two documented expressions for 'ashes': čǝnˈuš-ǝ {tšănúșă} (glossed as Romanian cenușă [Capidan 1935: 94]) and skrum {scrum} (glossed as Romanian scrum [Capidan 1935: 261]). Available contexts do not allow to differentiate between these words: {s-la arzu ăn furnă di cu scrum treatsi} "she stroke the stove, because they run out of ashes" [Capidan 1935: 261]; {fitšoru si la friz, di cu scrumu si mi ung și si-ń treacă} "the boy stroke the stove to rub me with ashes, because we run out of it" [Capidan 1928: 60]; {si fats ună poi̯ni di tšănușă} "to make bread from ash" [Capidan 1928: 95]; {și că vinì lă tărbușǫńă, tsela fitšoru scǫti izmęnili, li ampľă cu tšinușă și fęta si dusi s-li mănāncă; și că lăpnì cu rostu di izmęni, și rostu ăľ tsi ạmpľă di tšinușă și fitšoru lo migdan și fuzì} "and when it came to the stomach, the guy took out the fake one, which was filled with ash and gave it to the girl to eat. And when she started eating the fake, her mouth was filled with the ash and the guy run away to the square" [Capidan 1928: 36–37]; {ca si ardicat-au̯ nāltu pănă 'n tser și ca zăbubutit-au̯, la fat-au̯ tšănușă} "he was rising higher and higher up to the sky when it thundered so that the ashes could be seen" [Capidan 1928: 103], {pra și tšănúșă di tini} "dust and ashes of yours" [Capidan 1928: 197], {ăi̯ jar cupirit că tšănușă} "coal covered with ash" [Capidan 1928: 217].
Papahagi 1963: 358; Cunia 2010: 306; Dalametra 1906: 58; Goɫąb 1984: 210. There are two documented expressions for 'ashes': činˈuš-e {činúșe} (glossed as "cenușă, cendre" [Papahagi 1963: 358]) and skrˈum-ŭ {scrum} (glossed as "scrum, residu carbonisé de toute chose brûlée" [Papahagi 1963: 933]). Available contexts do not allow to differentiate between these words: {nu-avea činúșe tu vátră de multe orĭ} "for a long time he did not even have ashes in his fireplace" (about a poor person); {feáta ľĭ-alăsắčinúșea aráţe tu vátră} "the girl left cold ashes for her/him in the fireplace"; {scrum ș' činúșe bașĭ} "you kiss ashes" [Papahagi 1963: 358]; {u feáţe scrum} "he has produced ashes"; {ľĭ-an'ĭurdí scrum} "it smelled like ashes to her/him"; {ľĭ-si feáţe gura scrum di seáte} "thirst could make ashes appear in his mouth" [Papahagi 1963: 933]. We have to treat činˈuše and skrˈumŭ as synonyms.
DER 2004: 49; Bolocan et al. 1985: 443, 948; Gancz 2015. There are two expressions for 'ashes': inherited čenˈuš-ǝ {cenușă} and skrum {scrum} of Albanian origin. According to [Gancz 2015], the first one is more common and more frequent, while the second one is more rare and is used for cigarette ashes and ashes remaining from a conflagration. Distinct from spˈuz-ǝ {spuză} "hot ashes mixed with embers" [DEaLR 2015]. Moldavian: čenˈuš-ǝ {cenușă} 'ashes', skrum {scrum} 'ashes' [Podiko 1973: 266, 569; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 145, 280].
This word is written down by Bartoli as {kanau̯za} [Bartoli 2002: 245], but the form {canáissa} attested by Cubich [Bartoli 2002: 285] seems to be more reliable. There is also a word cyanr̩ {ziánr} ({el pizariáu̯l i fazúa i vetrúni e-i lo metúa sote la ziánr} "The ancient used to make focaccia and put it under the ashes" [Bartoli 2002: 242]), which seems to be of Venetian origin [Bartoli 2002: 172].
Some examples are: {Vedeva Troia in cenere e in caverne} "I saw there Troy in ashes and in caverns" [Purg. 12]; {Cenere, o terra che secca si cavi, // d'un color fora col suo vestimento} "Ashes, or earth that dry is excavated, // of the same colour were with his attire" [Purg. 9].
Monti Barnocchi-Moscati 2016. The plural form čˈenːer-i {cenneri} is applied to ashes as a product of human body cremation [Monti Barnocchi-Moscati 2016].
Riego-Delgado 2016. For example: {tira la ceniza del cigarro} "throw the ashes of the cigarette". The plural form θenˈiθ-es {cenices} is applied to ashes as a product of human body cremation [Riego-Delgado 2016]. Langreo: θenˈiθ-a {ceniza} 'ash', borˈay-a {borraya} 'ash' [González Rato 2016].
Leplubo 2016. Can be used both in plural and singular form. The example is: {des peumes ét tiére tchuites dins chés chennes} "potatoes baked in ashes" [Leplubo 2016].
Polysemy: 'bast / bark / book'. There are two words for 'bark' in Latin: kˈɔrt-ɛk-s {cortex} (genitive: kˈɔrt-ɪk-ɪs {corticis}) and lˈɪbɛr {liber}. It is usually assumed that {cortex} designated the outer layer of bark and {liber} the inner one ('rind', 'bast') [OLD 1968: 1024]. But some passages from Cato's texts convince us that in Archaic Latin {liber} was used for all types of tree bark, cf. {Altera insitio est: si vitis vitem continget, utriusque vitem teneram praeacuito, obliquo inter sese medullam cum medulla libro conligato} "A second method is: If the vines touch each other, cut the ends of a young shoot of each obliquely, and tie pith to pith with bark" [De agri cultura 41]; {Taleae ubi trimae sunt, tum denique maturae sunt, ubi liber sese vertet} "The slips are ready for transplanting at three years, when the bark turns" [De agri cultura 45]; {Quod genus aut ficum aut oleam esse voles, inde librum scalptro eximito, alterum librum cum gemma de eo fico, quod genus esse voles, eximito, adponito in eum locum unde exicaveris in alterum genus facitoque uti conveniat} "Remove with a knife the bark from any variety of fig or olive you wish, and take off a piece of bark containing a bud of any variety of fig you wish to graft" [De agri cultura 42]. In the first context {liber} is definitely used in the meaning 'inner layer of bark', but the second and especially the third indicate the meaning 'outer layer of bark' (buds grow on the outer part of a tree).
As for {cortex}, Cato uses it twice, once for wheat ({Selibram tritici puri in mortarium purum indat, lavet bene corticemque deterat bene eluatque bene} "Pour ½ pound of clean wheat into a clean bowl, wash well, remove the husk thoroughly, and clean well" [De agri cultura 86]) and once for grapes ({Mustum si voles totum annum habere, in amphoram mustum indito et corticem oppicato, demittito in piscinam} "If you wish to keep grape juice through the whole year, put the grape juice in an amphora, seal the stopper with pitch, and sink in the pond" [De agri cultura 120]). Taking this into acount, we come to the conclusion that initially {liber} was used both for 'bast' and 'bark', while {cortex} was applied to 'peel', and only later {cortex} extends its meaning to the outer layer of tree bark.
The only term for 'bark' in Vulgata is {cortex}: {Tollens ergo Iacob virgas populeas virides, et amygdalinas, et ex platanis, ex parte decorticavit eas: detractisque corticibus, in his, quae spoliata fuerant, candor apparuit} "Jacob cut branches from some poplar trees and from some almond and evergreen trees. He peeled off part of the bark and made the branches look spotted and speckled" [Genesis 30: 37]; {et mandebant herbas et arborum cortices et radix iuniperorum erat cibus eorum} "They gather tasteless shrubs for food and firewood" [Job 30: 4]; {aut si quis artifex faber de silva lignum rectum secaverit et huius docte eradat omnem corticem et arte sua usus diligenter fabricet vas utile in conversatione vitae} "A woodcutter may saw down a small tree, then peel off the bark and skillfully make something worthwhile from the wood" [Wisdom 13: 11]; {posuit vineam meam in desertum et ficum meam decorticavit nudans spoliavit eam et proiecit albi facti sunt rami eius} "Our grapevines and fig trees are stripped bare; only naked branches remain" [Joel 1: 7].
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 272. Borrowed from Croatian {kora} 'bark'. Byhan also mentions the word kˈož-ä {kóẑę} 'bark' of Slavic origin [Byhan 1899: 250], but it is absent from Kovačec's dictionary in this meaning.
Papahagi 1963: 300; Cunia 2010: 326; Dalametra 1906: 67. Polysemy: 'bark of tree / peel of fruit / nutshell / crust of bread'. An old borrowing from some Slavic source. Papahagi also mentions the Slavicism kˈo̯ar-ǝ {coáră} 'bark of tree / crust of bread', but gives no examples [Papahagi 1963: 300]. Distinct from flˈuð-ǝ {flúδă} 'thin peel / shell of an egg / scale of fish' of Greek origin [Papahagi 1963: 465; Cunia 2010: 459; Dalametra 1906: 93] and from gǝˈo̯aʎ-e {găoáľe} 'shell of an egg / peel of a fruit' of unknown origin [Papahagi 1963: 491; Cunia 2010: 486].
DER 2004: 70; Bolocan et al. 1985: 544-545; Gancz 2015. There are two expressions for 'bark': skˈo̯arc-ǝ {scoarţă} with polysemy: 'bark of tree / brain cortex / earth shell / book cover' and kˈo̯až-ǝ {coajă} with polysemy: 'bark of tree / peel of fruit / nutshell / crust of bread'. According to [Gancz 2015], kˈo̯ažǝ is used in the meaning 'thin bark' (like birch bark). Moldavian: skˈo̯arc-ǝ {scoarţă} 'bark' [Podiko 1973: 328; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 171].
Decorte 2015; Virili 2015; Pirona 1871: 665, 374. Besides this term, skˈwarc-e {scuarze} 'bark' is also used [Pirona 1871: 372], probably influenced by Italian {scorza} 'bark'.
Probably one of the most difficult cases. The term kort-ˈečː-a {corteccia} 'bark' is attested neither in Dante's nor in Petrarch's works. The term skˈɔrc-a {scorza} occurs in the Divine Comedy only once in the meaning 'bark'; furthermore, it is found at the end of the line, so it could be used for rhyming purposes: {com' io vidi calar l'uccel di Giove // per l'alber giù, rompendo de la scorza} "As I beheld the bird of Jove descend // down through the tree, rending away the bark" [Purg. 32]. Another example in the meaning 'layer': {perché non ti ritemi // sì di rodermi il core a scorza a scorza, // com'io di dire altrui chi ti dà forza?} "why do you not refrain // from so gnawing my heart through // layer by layer, as I do from revealing // who she is who gives you strength?" [Rime 103]. Petrarch uses {scorza} 8 times, but, just like Dante, always at the end of lines, so he cannot be regarded as a reliable source, since {scorza} rhymes much easier than {corteccia}. More important is the fact that Boccaccio uses both terms in the meaning 'bark of a tree' in his prose: {I loro scudi erano ad alcuni le dure scorze del morbido ciriegio} "the shields of some of them were made of hard bark of soft cherry tree" [Filocolo 5, 38]; {I piedi, giа stati presti, in radici, e 'l corpo in pedale, e le braccia in rami, e i capelli in frondi di questo albero trasmutт, con dura corteccia cignendomi tutto quanto} "My feet, that were fast before, turned to roots, and my body – into the trunk, and my arms – into branches, and my hair – in leaves of the tree, all covered with hard bark" [Filocolo 5, 8]. According to [TsLJdO 2016], both terms have been used in Tuscan Italian in this meaning since the XIII century, so we include both of them on the list.
Russo 2015; Nagar 2015; Mancusi 2015; Musella 2015; Morelli 2015; Cerrone 2015; Alois 2015. Besides this term, the word kurtˈɛšː-ǝ {curteccia} 'bark' is used [Matarazzo 2015; Cirillo 2015; Nagar 2015; Fattoruso 2015; Cerrone 2015; Alois 2015], but according to [Russo 2015], it is an Italianism.
Messina 2015; Ornato 2015. La Bua also mentions the term kuɾtˈičː-a {curticcia} 'bark' [La Bua 2015], which is probably an Italianism. Buscemi: skˈɔɾč-a {scorcia} 'bark' [Coccimiglio 2016].
Montoya Bolaños 2015. Borrowed from Spanish {corteza} 'bark'. There is also a word koɾt-ˈiθ-a {cortiza} mentioned by Fernández Armesto as 'bark' [Fernández Armesto 1981: 224], but according to [Montoya Bolaños 2016] it rather means 'cork'. Distinct from kˈask-a {casca} (native term) or kˈask-ar-a {cáscara} (borrowed from Spanish) 'peel of a fruit / egg's shell' [Montoya Bolaños 2016].
Viret 2013: 803. Bas-Faucigny: {égueurfa} 'bark'; Semine: {égorsa} 'bark'; Samoëns: {égourfa} 'bark'; Quintal: {égrufa} 'bark'. These forms may be of Arabic origin or at least influenced by it (see the comment on Manises Catalan). Lanslebourg: {rufi} 'bark'; Montagny vers Bozel: {pèla'ra} 'bark'; Cordon: {peleura} 'bark'.
Genitive form: wˈɛntr-ɪs {ventris}. Some examples are: {nam iam quasi zona liene cinctus ambulo, geminos in ventre habere videor filios} "For now I walk, girded with my spleen as though with a belt; in my stomach do I seem to be holding a twin offspring" [Curc. 220-221]; {Quis hic est homo cum collativo ventre atque oculis herbeis?} "Who is this fellow with extended paunch, and eyes as green as grass?" [Curc. 230-231]; {ita venter gutturque resident esurialis ferias} "So much do my stomach and my throat take rest on these fasting holidays" [Capt. 468]. The word pˈant-ɛk-s {pantex} is attested only once: {eo vos vestros panticesque adeo madefactatis, quom ego sim hic siccus} "You are a-soaking away yourselves and your paunches too, at the very time that I'm here a-dry" [Pseud. 184].
Cf. some examples: {inter quos pectus et venter crustata crassitie relucitabant} "through which a muscular chest and stomach gleamed" [Met. 6: 5]; {venter obesus residet} "my sagging paunch grew trim" [Met. 11: 13]. The term {pantex} is not attested.
Capidan 1935: 128. Polysemy: 'bag / bellows / belly'. Distinct from burˈik {buríc} with polysemy: 'navel / stomach / heart / mind' [Capidan 1935: 50]. Cf. some contexts: {Am un caɫ, șau̯a sub foali u poartă} "I have a horse that carries a saddle under its belly" (swings) [Capidan 1928: 156]; {Am un foali plin di alb mătšcats} "I have a bag, full of white crumbs" (white wheat flour) [Capidan 1928: 155]; {picat că ti purtǫ ăn foali} "unhappiness which you bore in your womb" (about a naughty child) [Capidan 1928: 194]; {și fitšoru si dusi la apu și ạmpľo un foali} "and the boy went to the water and filled a waterskin" [Capidan 1928: 142]; {umpľară trei̯ foľ di apă} "they filled three waterskins with water" [Capidan 1928: 110]; {ca viniră tseľă noi̯ľ, lară un dǫu̯ foľur...} "came those nine, carrying one or two bags" [Capidan 1928: 45]; {nu-ľ tăľai buricu} "his umbilical cord was left uncut" (about a man whom one does not know at all or cannot say anything good about); {că di buric cătsat} "as if grown from the navel" (about a weak person); [Capidan 1928: 169]; {buric mi nveaști ca șarpi} "I have a stomachache" (literally "my stomach is twisted by a snake") [Capidan 1935: 210]; {cu dracu'n buric amnă} "to walk with a devil in the stomach" (about an angry man) [Capidan 1928: 168]; {s-nu i̯eș pri goɫ buric} "do not go out with an empty stomach" [Capidan 1928: 181]; {i̯eɫ buricu tsireà si la veadă} "he wanted to see how clever they were" (literally "to see their minds") [Capidan 1928: 60]; {cǫti ari ăn buric} "he has so much in his mind!" (about a clever man) [Capidan 1928: 169].
Although Capidan also translates burˈik as "belly", it is clearly seen from the contexts cited above that 'belly' as a body part is designated by the word fˈo̯ali, while burˈik means 'navel' or 'stomach'.
Distinct from tǝrbušˈɔɲ-ǝ {tărbușǫ́ńă} 'belly or stomach of an animal' [Capidan 1935: 290] and from kɔrc {cǫrts} 'omasum' [Capidan 1935: 1962].
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 287; Byhan 1899: 362. Borrowed from Croatian {trbuh} 'belly'. Byhan also mentions the words medˈul {medúl} belly' [Byhan 1899: 273] and rˈɒns-ä {rǫnsę} 'swollen belly' [Byhan 1899: 330-331], which are absent from Kovačec's dictionary and from texts.
Distinct from štˈumig {ștúmig} 'stomach' (and a contaminated form štulbix {ștulbih}) [Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 285-286], yedɲak {iedńac} 'stomach' and želudac {jeludaţ} 'stomach' [Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 218], budˈil-ä {budílę} or mɒc {måţ} 'guts' [Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 226], drob {drob} 'intestines' [Kovačec 2010], Borrowed from Croatian {trbuh} 'belly'.
Papahagi 1963: 858; Cunia 2010: 800; Dalametra 1906: 167; Bara et al. 2005: 333; Goɫąb 1984: 241. Papahagi also mentions two borrowings, used in the meaning 'belly': sȶimb-ˈe {skimbé} of Turkish origin [Papahagi 1963: 958; Cunia 2010: 908] and strǝbǝšˈin-ǝ {străbășínă} of Slavic origin [Papahagi 1963: 978; Cunia 2010: 973]. Distinct from bˈik-ǝ {bícă} 'belly', used in baby talk [Papahagi 1963: 205; Cunia 2010: 195; Dalametra 1906: 38]. Distinct from stumˈa-e {stumáhe} 'stomach' [Papahagi 1963: 985; Cunia 2010: 980; Dalametra 1906: 198; Bara et al. 2005: 338; Goɫąb 1984: 251], plǝst-ur-ǝ {plăstură} 'a stomach with its content' [Papahagi 1963: 863; Cunia 2010: 836]; bˈurik-ŭ {buric} 'navel' (which is occasionally used in the meaning 'belly' as well) [Papahagi 1963: 231; Cunia 2010: 218-219; Dalametra 1906: 46; Bara et al. 2005: 333] and mˈac-ŭ {maţŭ} 'gut / intestine' [Papahagi 1963: 659; Cunia 2010: 617; Dalametra 1906: 128] ('umbilical cord' in Turia [Bara et al. 2005: 333]).
DER 2004: 83; Bolocan et al. 1985: 356; Gancz 2015. There are two expressions for 'belly': bˈurt-ǝ {burtă} and pˈɨnteč-e {pântece}, the latter with polysemy: 'belly, stomach / womb'. According to [Gancz 2015], they are synonyms, but the first one is more frequent. Has no certain etymology. Distinct from abdomˈen {abdomen} of French origin, used as a scientific term [Gancz 2015], vˈintr-e {vintre} 'belly', which is used in some dialects [DEaLR 2015] and stomˈak {stomac} 'stomach' of Greek origin [DEaLR 2015]. Moldavian: bˈurt-ǝ {burtă} 'belly' [Podiko 1973: 209; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 112].
Attested in Cubich's vocabulary [Bartoli 2002: 270]. Occurs in Cubich's notes in the context {e el bramó emplar el vianter de sillot} "and he desired to fill his belly with acorns" [Bartoli 2002: 281] and twice in the prayer "Hail Mary": {frut benedát del viantro to} "praised the fruit of thy womb" (written down by Ive) [Bartoli 2002: 301], {benedát el fróit del viantro to} (written down by Zonca) [Bartoli 2002: 293].
Forni 2015; Gartner 1923: 108, 122. Marebbano: ˈɔnter {ǫnter} 'belly'; Badiotto: vˈǝntǝr {văntǝr} 'belly'; Livinallese: vˈentɛr {véntęr} 'belly'; Nones: pˈanɕ-a {pantχa} 'belly' [Gartner 1923: 122]. Gartner also mentions the word pˈanc-a {pantsa} 'Bauch, Wanst' ('belly, paunch') of Italian origin [Gartner 1923: 64], but Forni marks it as obsolete and translates it as 'pancione' ('paunch') [Forni 2015].
Conrad 2015; Vital 2015; Pallioppi & Pallioppi 1895: 796. Pallioppi also mention the term pˈanc-ǝ {panza}, which they gloss as 'Wanst, Bauch' ('paunch, belly') [Pallioppi & Pallioppi 1895: 516].
Selva 2015. Borrowed from Italian {ventre} 'belly', replacing pˈanc-a {panza}, which now has an archaic or a more colloquial shade of meaning [Selva 2015].
Ercolani 1960: 292. Ercolani also mentions the word vˈentar {véntar} 'belly' [Ercolani 1960: 491], but does not provide any context. Distinct from utar {ùtar} 'womb' [Ercolani 1960: 241]. Marchigiano: pˈanc-a {panza} 'belly' [Pucci 2015].
Cf. some examples: {le cosce con le gambe e 'l ventre e 'l casso // divenner membra che non fuor mai viste} "the thighs and legs, the belly and the chest // members became that never yet were seen" [Inf. 25]; {Qual sovra 'l ventre e qual sovra le spalle // l'un de l'altro giacea} "This on the belly, that upon the back // one of the other lay" [Inf. 29]. The term pˈanč-a {pancia} 'paunch' occurs only three times: {Co' piè di mezzo li avvinse la pancia // e con li anterïor le braccia prese} "With middle feet it bound him round the paunch, // and with the forward ones his arms it seized" [Inf. 25]; {e quella ponta // sì, ch'a Fiorenza fa scoppiar la pancia} "and that he thrusts // so that he makes the paunch of Florence burst" [Purg. 20]; {Di buon' morselli i' sì m'empiola pancia} "With tasty morsels I fill my belly" (at the end of the line) [Il Fiore 105].
Monti Barnocchi-Moscati 2016. In the Standard Italian the word {trippa} is used in the meaning 'entrails' or as a pejorative word for 'belly' [Zorko et al. 2002: 938].
Alòs i Font 2015; EDCC 1993: 292. The word bˈentɾ-ǝ {ventre} 'belly' is used as well, but according to [Alòs i Font 2015], it is less common. Distinct from ʎumβɾˈiɣuɫ {llombrígol} 'navel' and mǝlˈik {melic} 'navel', spreading from the Western dialects [Alòs i Font 2015].
Valén 2015. Of unknown origin [Corominas 1997: 584]. The term barˈiɣ-a {barriga} 'belly' is more colloquial. The word bˈyentɾ-e {vientre} 'belly' is rare and restricted to the medical sphere [Valén 2015].
Voinova et al. 1989: 158. Although the dictionaries mention the term vˈẽntɾ-ǝ {ventre} as the basic word for 'belly' and bɐʁˈiɣ-ɐ {barriga} as 'paunch' [Voinova et al. 1989: 158; Feyershtein & Starets 2005: 130], in modern Lisboa Portuguese the term bɐʁˈiɣ-ɐ {barriga} is used for both outer and inner part of belly, while the old word vˈẽntɾ-ǝ {ventre} 'belly / womb' is restricted to inner part. vˈẽntɾ-ǝ {ventre} has also more formal or poetical shade [Pimentel Ferreira 2016]. Distinct from pˈɐ̃s-ɐ {pança} 'the first stomach of Ruminantia, paunch' [Feyershtein & Starets 2005: 595; Cândido de Figueiredo II: 572].
Viret 2013: 2210-2211. Viret also mentions the term bˈod-a {bôda} 'belly' without differentiating them, but bˈod-a {bôda} also occurs in another entry as a translation of French {panse} 'paunch', so we do not include it in the list. Distinct from pˈãf-a {panfa} 'belly', which is pejorative.
EDCT 2014: 1134-1135. Generic term for both human and animal belly. Can be used in the figurative meaning 'the inside of the body (where the heart is)'.
Comparative: mˈaː-yor {maior} ({Aulam maiorem, si pote, ex vicinia pete} "Seek of the neighbours a bigger pot if you can" [Aul. 390-391]), superlative: mˈak-sʉm-ʊs {maxumus} ~ {maximus}: {maxumum infortunium} "a very great calamity" [Merc. 165]; {maximam hercle habebis praedam} "you'll be having an immense profit" [Merc. 442].
The term {magnus} is most common and may be applied both to concrete and abstract nouns, cf. {pater oneravit navem magnam multis mercibus} "the father freighted a large ship with much merchandise" [Men. 24-25]; {Magna est praeda cum magno malo} "'Tis great booty with great risk" [Asin. 317]; {admodum magnis pedibus} "and very large feet" [Pseud. 1220]; {in ignem coniciam teque ambustulatum obiciam magnis avibus pabulum} "and throw you into the fire, and, half-roasted, I'll throw you out as food for the great birds" [Rud. 769-770]; {sunt alii puniceo corio, magni item; atque atri} "some are of a purple skin, there are great and black ones also" (about fish) [Rud. 998].
The term grˈand-ɪs {grandis} is applied to abstract nouns, cf. {dabit haec tibi grandis bolos} "she'll be producing you fine hauls" [Persa 658]; {tantum a portu adporto bonum, tam gaudium grande adfero} "Blessings so great am I carrying from the harbour, joys so extensive am I bringing" [Stichus 295]; {quamquam ibi labos grandis capitur} "although, in that, great labour is undergone by the mind" [Trin. 272]; {quos tam grandi sim mercatus praesenti pecunia?} "whom I purchased with so large a sum of ready money?" [Capt. 258]; especially with alliteration: {inibis a me solidam et grandem gratiam} "you will be doing me a real and a great service" [Curc. 405]; {Abire hinc ni properas grandi gradu} "If thee doesn't make haste to get away from this with prodigious speed" [Truc. 286]; {Di immortales te infelicent, ut tu es gradibus grandibus} "May the immortal Gods confound you, with what huge strides you do walk!" [Epid. 13]. This term is frequently applied to designations of age: {Soror illi est adulta virgo grandis} "He has a sister - a fine young woman now grown up" [Trin. 374]; {sed est grandior natu: media est mulieris aetas} "But she's somewhat aged; she's of the middle-age of woman" [Aul. 159]; {virginem habeo grandem} "I've a grown-up girl" [Aul. 191]; {MEG. Aetatem meam scis? EVCL. Scio esse grandem, item ut pecuniam} "MEG. Do you know my years? EUCL. I know that they are plentiful, just like your money" [Aul. 214]; {At ego hunc grandis grandem natu ob furtum ad carnificem dabo} "But now, grown up, I shall give him grown up to the executioner for his thieving" [Capt. 1019]. In one instance, both terms appear side by side so as to avoid repetition: {poculum grande, aula magna, ut satis consilia suppetant} "a good-sized cup and a capacious pot, that counsel enough may be forthcoming" [Curc. 368]. Only once do we find {grandis} used with a concrete noun: {NIC. Euge litteras minutas. CHRYS. Qui quidem videat parum; verum, qui satis videat, grandes satis sunt} "NIC. Bless me! the letters are small. CHRYS. To one, indeed, who cannot see well with his eyes but they are quite large enough for one who can see well" [Bac. 991-992].
As for Cato's texts, the term {grandis} occurs only twice (as opposed to the very frequent {magnus}), and both times it is applied to fruits of plants (barley and cabbage): {Vinum si voles experiri duraturum sit necne, polentam grandem dimidium acetabuli in caliculum novum indito et vini sextarium de eo vino quod voles experiri eodem infundito et inponito in carbones} "If you wish to determine whether wine will keep or not, place in a new vessel half an acetabulum of large pearl barley and a sextarius of the wine you wish to test; place it on the coals and bring it to a boil two or three times" [Cato De agri cultura 108]; {Sed quae vocantur septem bona in conmixtura, natura omnia haec habet brassica. Nunc uti cognoscas naturam earum, prima est levis quae nominatur; ea est grandis, latis foliis, caule magno, validam habet naturam et vim magnam habet} "The cabbage has naturally all the virtues of the socalled "Seven Blessings" mixture. To give, then, the several varieties: the first is the socalled smooth; it is large, with broad leaves and thick stem; it is hardy and has great potency" [Cato De agri cultura 157]. Anyway, the word {grandis} seems to be less frequent and restricted in use, so we include only {magnus} in the list.
Some examples are: {et de spinae meae termino grandis cauda procedit} "and a long tail shot from the tip of my spine" [Met. 3: 24]; {isto tamen vel unico solacio aerumnabilis deformitatis meae recreabar, quod auribus grandissimis praedibus cuncta longule etiam dissita facillime sentiebam} "at least I had gained one solace from that wretched and painful change of form, namely that with my vast ears I could hear everything clearly, even at some considerable distance" [Met. 9: 15]; {tanto damno cognito cum grandi baculo furens decurrit} "a young man with a large stick came running, in a fury" [Met. 4: 3].
The term mˈaŋn-ʊs {magnus} had become more restricted in use, applied primarily as a divine epithet: {pastor ille cuius iustitiam fidemque magnus comprobavit Iuppiter} "that shepherd, whose just and honest verdict was approved by almighty Jove" [Met. 4: 30]; {Ante lectuli pedes iacebat arcus et pharetra et sagittae, magni dei propitia tela} "At the foot of the bed lay his bow, and his quiver full of arrows, the graceful weapons of the powerful god" [Met. 5: 22]. In the meaning 'great' can be applied to people too: {Iam tu quidem magna videris quaedam mihi et alta prorsus malefica} "I'm certain you must be some kind of high and mighty witch" [Met. 6: 16]; {tantum potest nutus etiam magni principis} "and we instantly disbanded such is the strength of a nod from an emperor" [Met. 7: 7]; {litteras ad magnum scriptas principem Romam versus perlaturus} "the tribune sent him with despatches to the Emperor in Rome" [Met. 10: 13]; {de libro de litteris fausta vota praefatus principi magno senatuique et equiti totoque Romano populo} "Then from a high dais he read aloud from a book, Latin prayers for the mighty Emperor's health, for the Knights, the Senate and the Roman People" [Met. 11: 17].
Used also as an intensifier, mostly with abstract nouns, 'great, very', especially about high price or huge riches: {tam magnis pretiis pisces frivolos indicatis} "You mark up worthless goods to stupid prices" [Met. 1: 25]; {qui metu officiorum ac munerum publicorum magnis artibus magnam dissimulabat opulentiam} "who hid his vast assets with skill, in fear of having to pay the levy" [Met. 4: 9]; {et altrinsecus aedium horrea sublimi fabrica perfecta magnisque congesta gazis conspicit} "On the far side of the palace she found storerooms made with noble skill, heaped to the roof with mounds of treasure" [Met. 5: 2]; {Sed omnem pristinam sociorum fortium multitudinem magnesque illas opes exiguo temporis amisi spatio} "But in a brief moment of time I lost a whole host of courageous comrades" [Met. 7: 6]; {Me denique ipsum pauperculus quidam hortulanus comparat quinquaginta nummis, magno, ut aiebat} "a poor market-gardener bought me for fifty sestertii, a high price for him to pay, as he said" [Met. 9: 31]; about loud voice or noise: {magnaque voce praeconis pretia singulis nuntiantis} "In a loud voice the auctioneer announced our prices" [Met. 8: 23]; {Magnus denique continuo clamor exortus est et emensis protinus scalis iniecta manu quidam me velut captivum detrahunt} "Some of them ran upstairs, grabbed hold of me, and dragged me downstairs as their prisoner" [Met. 9: 42]; {ad ipsam praesidis domum magnoque fidem eius protestata clamore} "She ran to the governor's house, and appealing loudly for his protection" [Met. 10: 28]. With other abstract nouns: {nunc enim gloriam satis floridam, nunc historiam magnam et incredundam fabulam et libros me futurum} "on the one hand it appears my reputation will truly grow, on the other hand my future will be a long story, one in several volumes, a tale no one will believe" [Met. 2: 12]; {Perfidae lupulae magnis conatibus nefarias insidias tibi comparant} "Those treacherous she-wolves are working hard to execute some evil act against you" [Met. 5: 11]; {in summo pulvinari locatus cena poculisque magnis inaugurator} "took his seat at the head of the table, and his inauguration was celebrated with a meal and a drinking bout" [Met. 7: 9]; {et magnis suis laboribus perfectum desiderium Philesithero laetitia percitus nuntiat statimque destinatum praemium reposcit} "He cheerfully announced to Philesitherus that his efforts had furthered the youth's wishes" [Met. 9: 19]; {magnaque cura requisitam veteratricem quandam feminam} "after careful inquiry, she found an old witch" [Met. 9: 29]; {Et tam magnam domus cladem ratus indigere consilio pleniore ad quendam compertae gravitatis educatorem senem protinus refert} "Deciding that such a challenge to the family honour needed wise counsel, he took the matter to his old and learned tutor" [Met. 10: 4]; {Tunc infelix duplici filiorum morte percussum magnis aerumnarum procellis aestuat} "So now the poor husband, blown about by the winds of misfortune, was threatened with the death of his other son" [Met. 10: 5]; {Nec tantillum cruciarius ille vel fortuna tam magni indicii vel confertae conspectu curiae} "That candidate for the gallows was not the least bit deterred by the magnitude of the charge, the sight of the packed council-chamber" [Met. 10: 7]; {Magno denique delibutus gaudio dominus, vocatis servis suis, emptoribus meis, iubet quadruplum restitui pretium meque cuidam acceptissimo liberto suo et satis peculiato magnam praefatus diligentiam tradidit} "The master was filled with delight, summoned the servants who'd bought me, then acquired me for four times the price. Next he turned me over to his favourite freedman, a man of means, ordering him to take good care of me" [Met. 10: 17]; {magnisque imperiis eius intentus monitionis ordinem recolebam} "reviewing intently her series of potent commands" [Met. 11: 7]; {magnoque procellarum sedato fragore} "for the winter gales had ceased" [Met. 11: 7]; {Ecce pompae magnae paulatim praecedunt anteludia votivis cuiusque studiis exornata pulcherrume} "Now the vanguard of the grand procession slowly appeared, its participants in holiday attire each in finery of their choosing" [Met. 11: 8]; {magnae religionis terrena sidera} "the earthly stars of the great rite" [Met. 11: 10]; {altioris utcumque et magno silentio tegendae religionis argumentum ineffabile} "being the ineffable symbol somehow of a deeper sacredness, to be cloaked in awful silence" [Met. 11: 11]; {Multis et variis exanclatis laboribus magnisque Fortunae tempestatibus et maximis actus procellis ad portum Quietis et aram Misericordiae tandem, Luci, venisti} "Lucius, after suffering many labours, buffeted by Fortune's mighty tempests, by the fierce winds of fate, you reach at last the harbour of Peace, the altar of Mercy" [Met. 11: 15].
Sometimes the word can still be used in the direct meaning: {cum viderem canes et modo magnos et numero multos et ursis ac leonibus ad compugnandum idoneos in me convocatos exasperari} "seeing those dogs large in size and many in number, fit to fight bears or lions, gathered and ranged against me" [Met. 4: 3]; {meis tam magnis auribus accipiens} "all ears as I was" [Met. 6: 32]; {senex alius, magnum ille quidem, gravatus annis} "a second old man approached on the road, tall and bent with the years" [Met. 8: 19]; {"O grande" inquam "et extremum flagitium, magnam et vere pretiosam perdimus bestiam"} "It's a crime to kill so large a beast" [Met. 4: 20]; {At enim casulae parvulae conterminos magnos et beatos agros possidebat vicinus potens et dives} "a certain poor neighbour whose modest cottage adjoined a large and prosperous estate owned by a wealthy and important young nobleman" [Met. 9: 35].
There are two documented expressions for 'big': mawr {mau̯r} and grwont {gru͡ọnt} ~ grwond {gru͡ọnd}. It seems that the most common term for 'big' is mawr, cf. {joi̯n vu̯aṡ máu̯ro} "a big vase" [Bartoli 2002: 244]; {joi̯na dindi̯u͡ọta máu̯ra} "a big turkey" [Bartoli 2002: 238]; {joi̯na skodelu͡ọta mau̯ra} "a big bowl" [Bartoli 2002: 243], while grwont means rather 'great / huge': {l-amu͡ọr fero gru͡ọnt} "love is great" [Bartoli 2002: 246]; {joi̯n prat gru͡ọnd} "a great priest" [Bartoli 2002: 246]; {munčái̯ grúnt} "big mountains" [Bartoli 2002: 235] (but {joi̯n pu͡ọṅ grúnd} "big bread" [Bartoli 2002: 251]), so we choose the first word as more in line with GLD specifications.
Sanero 2015. Distinct from grɔs {gròss} 'big / thick', which is rather restricted to designating thickness, big volume, cf. {Un cit grand} "A big/tall child" and {Un cit gròss} "A fat child".
The main term for 'big', used with a broad range of objects: {grand' arco tra la ripa secca e 'l mezzo} "a great arc 'twixt the dry bank and the swamp" [Inf. 7]; {d'un grand' avello, ov' io vidi una scritta} "of a great tomb, whereon I saw a writing" [Inf. 11]; {Quando s'ebbe scoperta la gran bocca} "After he had uncovered his great mouth" [Inf. 12]; {per lo furto che frodolente fece // del grande armento ch'elli ebbe a vicino} "by reason of the fraudulent theft he made // of the great herd, which he had near to him" [Inf. 25]; {Sotto ciascuna uscivan due grand' ali} "Underneath each came forth two mighty wings" [Inf. 34]; {e come ai rivi grandi si convene} "and as it mingled with the mighty torrents" [Purg. 5].
The term grˈɔsː-o {grosso} 'big, thick' seems to be restricted to the designation of big volume as in modern Italian, cf. some examples: {a tale imagine eran fatti quelli, // tutto che né sì alti né sì grossi, // qual che si fosse, lo maestro félli} "in such similitude had those been made, // albeit not so lofty nor so thick, // whoever he might be, the master made them" [Inf. 15]; {E un che d'una scrofa azzurra e grossa // segnato avea lo suo sacchetto bianco} "And one, who with an azure sow and gravid // emblazoned had his little pouch of white" [Inf. 17]; {Le cappe rance // son di piombo sì grosse, che li pesi // fan così cigolar le lor balance} "These orange cloaks // are made of lead so heavy, that the weights // cause in this way their balances to creak" [Inf. 23].
Very infrequently, the term mˈaɲ-o {magno} 'great' can also be used; it usually occurs at the end of a line, possibly due to rhyming purposes: {Colà diritto, sovra 'l verde smalto, // mi fuor mostrati li spiriti magni} "There opposite, upon the green enamel, // were pointed out to me the mighty spirits" [Inf. 4]; {Tosto fur sovr' a noi, perché correndo // si movea tutta quella turba magna} "Full soon they were upon us, because running // moved onward all that mighty multitude" [Purg. 18]; {li occhi rivolgi al logoro che gira // lo rege etterno con le rote magne} "thine eyes lift upward to the lure, that whirls // the Eternal King with revolutions vast" [Purg. 19]; {Non pur per ovra de le rote magne, // che drizzan ciascun seme ad alcun fine // secondo che le stelle son compagne} "Not only by the work of those great wheels, // that destine every seed unto some end, // according as the stars are in conjunction} [Purg. 30]; {Per questo l'Evangelio e i dottor magni // son derelitti} "For this the Evangel and the mighty Doctors // are derelict" [Par. 9]; {Grato e lontano digiuno, // tratto leggendo del magno volume // du' non si muta mai bianco né bruno} "Hunger long and grateful, // drawn from the reading of the mighty volume // wherein is never changed the white nor dark" [Par. 15].
Passerini Tosi 1989: 1397-1398. Distinct from grˈɔsː-o {grosso} 'big / thick', which is more or less restricted to designation of 'thickness', 'big volume'.
Messina 2015. Distinct from ɾˈwɔsː-u {ruossu} 'big / thick', which is more or less restricted to the designation of 'thickness', 'big volume' [Messina 2015; Ornato 2015]. Termini Imerese: ɾˈɔsː-u {rossu} 'big' [La Bua 2015]. Buscemi: ɾˈanː-i {ranni} 'big' [Coccimiglio 2016].
Leggio 2015; Miccichè 2015. Distinct from ɾˈɔsː-u {rossu} 'big / thick', which is more or less restricted to the designation of 'thickness', 'big volume' [Miccichè 2015].
Alòs i Font 2015; Llorens 2015; EDCC 1993: 143. Distinct from gɾɔs {gros} 'big / thick', which is more restricted to the designation of thickness, big volume, cf. {Aquesta persona té un nas gros, aquesta altra un nas petit} "This person has a big nose, that one has a small nose" and {Una pedra grossa} "A big stone", but {Una fulla gran} "A big leaf", {Un arbre gran} "A big tree" (cf. {Un arbre gros} "A thick tree"), {Un mar gran} "A big sea" (cf. {Un mar gros}, when there are big waves) and {Un noi gran} "A big child" (cf. {Un noi gros} "A fat child") [Alòs i Font 2015].
Pérez i Sanchis 2015. Distinct from gɾɔs {gros} 'big / thick', which is more restricted to the designation of thickness, big volume, cf. {Aquesta persona té un nas gros, eixa té un nas xicotet} "This person has a big nose, that one has a small nose" and {Una pedra grossa} "A big stone", but {Una fulla gran} "A big leaf", {Un arbre gran} "A big tree", {Un mar gran} "A big sea" and {Un xiquet gran} "A big child" [Pérez i Sanchis 2015].
Viret 2013: 1091-1092. Viret mentions two words for 'big': grã {gran} in accordance with French {grand} [Viret 2013: 1091-1092] and gru {grou} in accordance with French {gros} [Viret 2013: 1109-1110]. Based on these data, we include only the first term in the list; see notes on the list for Standard French.
EDCT 2014: 559-561. As in Modern French, there are two terms for 'big': grãnt {grant} and grɔs {gros} [EDCT 2014: 568]. It seems that the difference between them correlates with the Modern one, cf. {n'orent mie lances menues, // ainz furent grosses et plenees, // et si estoient bien fenees, // s'an furent plus roides et forz} "The lances they had were not light, but were big and square; nor were they planed smooth, but were rough and strong" (Erec 5890-5893); {toz d'une esmeraude anterine, // et si avoit plain poing de gros} "all of one solid emerald, fully as large as your fist" (Erec 6812-6813). The diagnostic context is: {Mout feisoient de lui grant los // petit et grant, et gresle et gros; // tuit prisent sa chevalerie} "Great and small, thin and stout - all make much of him and praise his knighthood" (Erec 1245-1247). As in the case with Modern French, we include only grãnt {grant} in the list.
Robert-Collins 1989: 56; Rayevskaya 2013: 346. There are two words for 'big': gʁɑ̃ {grand} and gʁo {gros} [Robert-Collins 1989: 56; Rayevskaya 2013: 346]. The term gʁo {gros} is restricted to designation of big surface and/or big volume: {une grosse pierre} 'a big stone', {un gros nuage} 'a big cloud', {une grosse larme} 'a big tear'; it is used mostly for designation of cylindrical objects: {un gros fil} 'a thick thread', {un gros bâton} 'a big stick', {un gros canon} 'a big gun', people and animals (then meaning 'thick'): {un gros chat} 'a thick cat', {un gros rat} 'a thick rat', {une grosse fille} 'a thick girl', and for some body parts: {un gros ventre} 'a big/thick belly', {une grosse tête} 'a big head', {un gros cou} ' a big/thick neck', {un gros nez} 'a big nose' [LGR 5: 17-19]. Since gʁɑ̃ {grand} has a much broader meaning (see [LGR 4: 1008-1012]), we include only this term in the list.
Some examples are: {quovis admittunt aves} "do the birds give good omens" [Asin. 259]; {in ignem coniciam teque ambustulatum obiciam magnis avibus pabulum} "and throw you into the fire, and, half-roasted, I'll throw you out as food for the great birds" [Rud. 769-770]; {soleamne esse avis squamosas, piscis pennatos?} "Or whether I'm wont to eat birds with scales, or fish with wings?" [Men. 918].
Cf. some examples: {Iamque alternis conatibus libratis brachiis in avem similis gestiebam} "Then I spread out my arms and flapped them up and down one after the other, trying my best to become a bird" [Met. 3: 24]; {Tuam maiestatem perhorrescunt aves caelo meantes, ferae montibus errantes, serpentes solo latentes, beluae ponto natantes} "The birds flying in the sky, the wild beasts that prowl the mountains, the serpents that lurk underground, the very monsters of the deep tremble at your power" [Met. 11: 25].
Capidan 1935: 239. Polysemy: 'chick / bird'. Cf.: {unagăľină cu puľ} "a chicken with chicks" [Capidan 1928: 123] and {ară corbu zisi: "na ună peană di la mini, cǫn si-u jigneș si ti fats puľ di, cari si tser si fuz, pots} "the raven also said: "take my feather; whenever you wish, it will help you to become a bird if you want to escape from somewhere" [Capidan 1928: 71].
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 263; Byhan 1899: 321. Polysemy: 'bird / chick'. Byhan also mentions the word pˈɒsǝr-ä {pǫ́so̥rę} 'bird' [Byhan 1899: 316], which is absent from Kovačec's dictionary and from texts.
DER 2004: 92; Bolocan et al. 1985: 1200; Gancz 2015. Goes back to the Latin {passer} 'sparrow'. See the same semantic shift in the Castillian Spanish. Moldavian: pˈasǝr-e {pasăre} 'bird' [Podiko 1973: 745; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 359].
Bartoli 2002: 238. Some examples are: {joi̯n čap di učéi̯} "a swarm of birds"; {el bekanu̯át fero joi̯n očél máu̯ro koi̯ṡa i gardelu͡ọti} "A snipe is a bird as big as a goldfinch" [Bartoli 2002: 238]. Besides this inherited term, Udina once uses the Venetian borrowing ocˈel {ozél}: {kosta artańa fero vív ... gu͡ọrda ke gru͡ọnde jál ke avás kol ozél} "this heron is alive, it is looking at the big wings which that bird has" [Bartoli 2002: 238].
Some examples are: {De l'empiezza di lei che mutò forma // ne l'uccel ch'a cantar più si diletta} "Of her impiety, who changed her form // into the bird that most delights in singing" [Purg. 17]; {sì come far suole // chi dietro a li uccellin sua vita perde} "as he is wont to do // who wastes his life pursuing little birds" [Purg. 23]; {le membra d'oro avea quant' era uccello} "his limbs were gold, so far as he was bird" [Purg. 29]. The variant awǯˈɛlː-o {augello} is also possible: {e tal ne la sembianza sua divenne, // qual diverrebbe Iove, s'elli e Marte // fossero augelli e cambiassersi penne} "and even such in semblance it became // as Jupiter would become, if he and Mars // were birds, and they should interchange their feathers" [Par. 27].
Passerini Tosi 1989: 1400. Distinct from vol-ˈat-il-e {volatile} 'bird', used to designate all flying animals (including bats), and may be used as a synonym of {uccello} in literary or official language [Vitali 2015].
Alòs i Font 2015; Llorens 2015; EDCC 1993: 210. Distinct from aw {au} 'bird', which is rather rare, although there is a tendency to calque the Spanish distinction of {ave} 'bird, big bird' – {pájaro} 'small bird (especially able to fly)' with the opposition aw - usˈeʎ. Distinct from pǝɾðˈaɫ {pardal} 'small bird' [Alòs i Font 2015].
Montagut 2015; Balletbò 2015. The Central Catalan form awsˈeʎ {ocell} 'bird' is used as well, spreading with the help of school and television [Montagut 2015; Balletbò 2015].
Cardona 2015. Goes back to Latin {pardalis} 'panther, leopard', which is borrowed from Ancient Greek {πάρδαʎις} 'panther, leopard, Lanius' [Beekes 2010: 1152], but we do not regard this word as a borrowing, since the meaning shift took place already in Catalan.
Castelló de la Plana Catalan EG:paɾðˈaɫ {pardal}5
Attested as a verb only once: {signum esse oportet in manu laeva tibi, ludenti puero quod memordit simia} "there ought to be a mark upon your left hand, a bite which an ape gave you when a child" [Poen. 1073-1074], but there are also some examples of the derivates: {Namque edepol si adbites propius, os denasabit tibi mordicus} "Yes, for, by my faith, if you approach nearer, he'll be taking your nose off with his teeth" [Capt. 604-605]; {teneris labellis molles morsiunculae} "the soft, dear kisses impressed on our tender lips" [Pseud. 67]; {meus est istic clam mordax canis} "my dog is there concealed that bites" [Bac. 1146]; {ianua est mordax mea} "is my door apt to bite" [Truc. 352]. The term {morsicare} is not attested in Plautus' texts.
There are no good examples on the usage of 'to bite' in Apuleius or Gellius' texts. Apuleius does not use {mordere} at all, while for mɔrs-ɪk-ˈaː-rɛ {morsicare} there are just two unreliable examples: {Nam imaginem etiam savii mentiendo ore improbo compulsat ac morsicat} "He pretends to kiss them too, fondling and biting them with his vile lips" [Met. 7: 21]; {Tum illa cervicem intorsit et ad me conversa limis et morsicantibus oculis} "She twisted her neck towards me then, and turned to me with a sidelong glance of those sharp eyes" [Met. 2: 10].
In Vulgata {morsicare} never occurs, while {mordere} is quite a common term, usually applied to snakes, but also to animals and people: {Quod si invicem mordetis, et comeditis: videte ne ab invicem consumamini} "But if you keep attacking each other like wild animals, you had better watch out or you will destroy yourselves" [Galatians 5: 15]; {qui adtonitis oculis cogitat prava mordens labia sua perficit malum} "When someone winks or grins behind your back, trouble is on the way" [Proverbs 16: 30].
Since the occurrence of the term {morsicare} as the main word for 'to bite' in some Romance languages belongs to rather late stages of their history, we prefer to regard {mordere} as the only term for 'to bite' in Apuleius' times, although, accidentally, it did not occur in his own texts.
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 230; Byhan 1899: 285. Polysemy: 'to bite / to itch'. Cf. {brécu rę mučcå} "the dog would bite" (Brdo); {múčkę me cåpu} "my head itches" (Šušnjevica) [Kovačec 2010].
DER 2004: 93; Bolocan et al. 1985: 576; Gancz 2015. Doesn't have a generally accepted etymology. Possibly goes back to the Vulgar Latin {*muccicare}, based on {*mucculare}, which is derived from {muccus} 'mucus, snot'; another version traces this term to {mucceus} influenced by the verb {morsicare} 'to bite' [Ciorănescu 2015]. Moldavian: a=mušk-ˈa {a mușca} 'to bite' [Podiko 1973: 346; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 181].
Some examples are: {el ku͡ọṅ ke búi̯ no morsigúa} "the dog which barks does not bite" [Bartoli 2002: 229]; {el kuṅ me ju morsigu͡ọt, ku͡ọńa} "the dog bit me, she-dog" [Bartoli 2002: 237].
Cf. some examples: {ambo le man per lo dolor mi morsi} "both of my hands in agony I bit"} [Inf. 33]; {quant' io vidi in due ombre smorte e nude, // che mordendo correvan di quel modo // che 'l porco quando del porcil si schiude} "as I beheld two shadows pale and naked, // who, biting, in the manner ran along // that a boar does, when from the sty turned loose" [Inf. 30]. The term mors-ik-ˈa-re {morsicare} 'to bite' is not attested in Dante’s works.
Passerini Tosi 1989: 1401. Used in relation to animals and people [Battaglia X: 892-895]. Distinct from mors-ik-ˈare {morsicare}, which is applied to animals, especially wild and harmful ones [Battaglia X: 928-929].
Corsaro 2015; La Mattina 2015; Salerno 2015. Salerno also mentions the form mɔsːik-ˈa-ɾi {mossicari}, borrowed from Italian {morsicare} 'to bite' [Salerno 2015].
Robert-Collins 1989: 58; Rayevskaya 2013: 457. Distinct from pik-e {piquer}, which is used when speaking of a snake or insect [Robert-Collins 1989: 58; Rayevskaya 2013: 457].
Leplubo 2016. Apart from this term, there are also such equivalents as aɲ-e {hagner} 'to bite' or aʁp-e {harper} 'to bite', which are much less frequent [Leplubo 2016].
There are two terms for 'black' in Latin: ˈaːtɛr {ater} and nˈigɛr {niger}. A popular theory claims that {ater} was applied to "dull" things and {niger} to "bright" ones [Solopov 2007: 72-73]. Yu. V. Normanskaya, however, believes that the difference is rather chronological: {ater} was an old term, eventually replaced by the innovative {niger} [Normanskaya 2005: 160-187].
There are not many examples for 'black' in Plautus' plays, but it seems that the difference cannot be described as 'dull black' – 'bright black'. The term {niger} and its derivates {subniger} 'blackish' and {perniger} 'very black' are restricted in use to eyes or skin colour: {macilento ore, naso acuto, corpore albo, oculis nigris, subrufus aliquantum, crispus, cincinnatus} "with a thin face, sharp nose, light hair, dark eyes, somewhat ruddy, with hair rather crisp and curling" [Capt. 647-648]; {Specie venusta, ore atque oculis pernigris} "Of agreable form, with a small mouth, and very dark eyes" [Poen. 1113]; {Rufus quidam, ventriosus, crassis suris, subniger, magno capite, acutis oculis, ore rubicundo, admodum magnis pedibus} "A certain red-haired fellow, pot-bellied, with thick calves, swarthy, with a big head, sharp eyes, red face, and very large feet" [Pseud. 1218-1220]; {canum, varum, ventriosum, bucculentum, breviculum, subnigris oculis, oblongis malis, pansam aliquantulum} "red-headed, bandy-legged, pot-bellied, wide-mouthed, of stunted figure, with darkish eyes, lank jaws, splay-footed rather" [Merc. 639-640].
The distribution of {ater} is much broader. It designates the colour of bile, pitch, hair, fish, cloud, human skin, wine: {Si canum seu istuc rutilum sive atrumst, amo} "Whether that is hoary, or whether red, or whether black, I'm in love" (about hair) [Merc. 306]; {viden tu illi maculari corpus totum maculis luridis? atra bilis agitat hominem. ARIST. At pol te, si hic sapiat senex, pix atra agitet apud carnificem tuoque capiti inluceat} "Black bile is disordering the man. ARIST. And, by my faith, if this old gentleman is wise, black pitch will be disordering you with the executioner, and giving a light to your head" [Capt. 594-596]; {Atra bili percita est} "She's attacked with black bile" [Amph. 727]; {atrior multo ut siet, quam Aegyptini} "she should be much more swarthy than the Egyptians" [Poen. 1290-1291]; {Sol est ad eam rem pictor: atrum fecerit} "The sun's a painter who'll attend to that, sir: he'll soon put the black on" (about skin) [Vid. 36]; {sunt alii puniceo corio, magni item; atque atri} "some are of a purple skin, there are great and black ones also" (about fish) [Rud. 998]; {nonne ex advorso vides, nubis atra imberque} "Black clouds and showers are coming on" [Merc. 878-879]; {Dic mihi hoc quod te rogo: album an atrum vinum potas?} "Tell me this that I ask of you; do you drink white wine or dark-coloured?} [Men. 914-915]; {atrum holus} 'Smyrnium olusatrum' [Pseud. 814]. Because of this, we assume that in Plautus' Latin {ater} was the basic term for 'black', while (niger} was restricted to eye colour (like Russian {kariy}).
In Cato's texts, {niger} occurs more frequently, but it is always collocated with words for 'olives', 'myrtle' and 'wine': {vel orcites ubi nigrae erunt et siccae, sale confriato dies V} "When the orcites are black and dry, powder them with salt for five days" [De agri cultura 7] (the English translation is incorrect, Cato uses the word {orcites} in the meaning 'a kind of olive having an oblong shape' [OLD 1968: 1265]); {Sub urbe hortum omne genus, coronamenta omne genus, bulbos Megaricos, murtum coniugulum et album et nigrum} "Near a town it is well to have a garden planted with all manner of vegetables, and all manner of flowers for garlands — Megarian bulbs, conjugulan myrtle, white and black myrtle" [De agri cultura 8]; {Olea ubi nigra erit, stringit} "Pick olives after they have turned black" [De agri cultura 65]; {Antequam nigrae fiant, contundantur et in aquam deiciantur} "Bruise the olives before they become black and throw them into water" [De agri cultura 117]; {Epityrum album nigrum variumque sic facito. Ex oleis albis nigris variisque nuculeos eicito} "Recipe for a confection of green, ripe, and mottled olives. Remove the stones from green, ripe, and mottled olives" [De agri cultura 119]; {Murtam nigram arfacito in umbra} "Dry out black myrtle in the shade, and when dried keep it until vintage" [De agri cultura 125]; {XXX mala Punica acerba sumito, contundito, indito in urceum et vini nigri austeri congios III} "Take 30 acid pomegranates, crush, place in a jar with 3 congii of strong black wine, and seal the vessel" [De agri cultura 126]; {murtum coniugulum et murtum album et nigrum} "conjuglan myrtle, as well as white and black myrtle" [De agri cultura 133].
The term {ater} is used by Cato with words for 'figs', 'hornbeam', 'hellebore', 'wine', 'ulcer' and 'bile': {Ficos mariscas in loco cretoso et aperto serito; Africanas et Herculaneas, Sacontinas, hibernas, Tellanas atras pediculo longo, eas in loco crassiore aut stercorato serito} "Plant mariscan figs in chalky, open soil. The African, Herculean, Saguntine, the winter variety, the black Tellanian with long pedicles, in soil which is richer or manured" [De agri cultura 8]; {Prelum ex carpino atra potissimum facito} "Make the press-beam preferably of black hornbeam" [De agri cultura 31]; {Veratri atri radices contundito in pila, eas radices dato circum vitem} "Pound roots of black hellebore in the mortar, and apply around the vines" [De agri cultura 114]; {In vinum mustum veratri atri manipulum coicito in amphoram} "Throw in a handful of black hellebore to the amphora of must" [De agri cultura 115]; {Tris fasciculos veratri atri circumponito circum radices et terram insuper inicito} "place three bundles of black hellebore around the roots and cover with earth" [De agri cultura 115]; {Et si sine febre erit, dato vini atri duri aquatum bibat quam minimum; si febris erit, aquam} "If the patient has no fever, administer a very little strong, dark wine, diluted; but if he has fever give only water" [De agri cultura 156]; {Et si bilis atra est et si lienes turgent et si cor dolet et si iecur aut pulmones aut praecordia, uno verbo omnia sana faciet intro quae dolitabunt} "Also if you are bilious, if the spleen is swollen, if the heart is painful, or the liver, or the lungs, or the diaphragm — in a word, it will cure all the internal organs which are suffering" [De agri cultura 157]; {Et si febrim non habebit, dato vinum atrum bibat; cito sanus fiet} "and if he has no fever he may have some dark wine" [De agri cultura 157]; {Cancer ater, is olet et saniem spurcam mittit; albus purulentus est, sed fistulosus et subtus suppurat sub carne} "The black ulcer has a foul odour and exudes putrid pus, the white is purulent but fistulous, and suppurates under the surface" [De agri cultura 157].
It seems that in Cato's Latin {ater} is universally applicable and more frequent than {niger} as well, so we include only {ater} in the list. Since the etymology of {niger} is unknown [de Vaan 2008: 409], it is probably a borrowing that gradually replaced the old term {ater}.
The term {ater} clearly prevails in Apuleius' texts: {et, quae longe longeque etiam meum confutabat optutum, palla nigerrima splendescens atro nitore} "and what dazzled me most of all was her jet-black cloak with its full sheen" [Met 11: 3]; {iam taedae lumen atrae fuliginis cinere marcescit} "the flames of the wedding torches grew dim with black smoky ash" [Met. 4: 33]; {Inter haec quaedam mulier per medium theatrum lacrimosa et flebilis atra veste contecta parvulum quendam sinu tolerans decurrit} "To top it all a woman dressed in black with a child in her arms came hastening through the theatre, and behind her an old lady clothed in rags both of them wailing equally mournfully" [Met. 3: 8]; {de quo fontis atri fuscae defluunt undae} "Dark waters flow from a black fount there" [Met. 6: 13]; {ante ipsum limen et atra atria Proserpinae semper excubans} "He keeps constant guard at the threshold of Proserpine's dark halls" [Met. 6: 19]; {nunc atra, nunc aurea facie sublimis, attollens canis cervices arduas, Anubis} "Anubis <…>, with a face one side black the other gold, his jackal's neck erect" [Met. 11: 11]; {Nec mora, cum noctis atrae fugato nubilo sol exsurgit aureus} "Soon the dark shades of night were dispelled, a golden sun arose" [Met. 11: 7]; {etiam libenter te nuper usque albus an ater esses ignoraui, et adhuc hercle non satis noui} "and secondly I am glad to say that until quite recently you might have been white or black for all I knew" [Apologia 16: 9]; {Nam quae, malum, ratio est linguam mundam et laetam, uocem contra spurcam et tetram possidere, uiperae ritu niueo denticulo atrum uenenum inspirare?} "Is it reasonable, wretch, that your tongue should be fresh and clean, when your voice is foul and loathsome, or that, like the viper, you should employ snow-white teeth for the emission of dark, deadly poison?" [Apologia 8: 4]; {Enimuero si perniciosa illa dulcedo intus cohibita et bili atrae sociata uenis omnibus furens peruasit} "But if, on the other hand, this dangerous corruption be contained within the body and mingle with the black bile, and so run fiercely through every vein" [Apologia 50: 4]; {Praeterea fumi tantam uim fuisse, ut parietes atros redderet, eamque deformitatem, quoad habitauit, passum in cubiculo suo Quintianum!} "Or further that the smoke should have been strong enough to blacken the walls and that Quintianus should have suffered such defacement of his bedroom for as long as he lived there!" [Apologia 58: 6]; {pictura ex discordibus pigmentorum coloribus, atris atque albis, luteis et puniceis, confusione modica temperatis, imagines iis quae imitatur similes facit} [Florida 20].
The only example of nˈigɛr {niger} is: {Falcibus et messae ad lunam quaeruntur aenis pubentes herbae nigri cum lacte ueneni} "Rank herbs are sought, with milky venom dark by brazen sickles under moonlight mown" [Apologia 30: 8], although the derivate term {nigredo} 'blackness' occurs as well: {corvina nigredine caerulus columbarum colli flosculos aemulatur} "now with raven blackness imitating the purple collar of a pigeon's neck" [Met. 2: 9].
However, it is clear that in Petronius' language {niger} becomes a basic word for 'black': in Satyricon it occurs five times, designating the colour of olives, crow, stone, dog and clothes, cf. {Sed corneolus fuit, aetatem bene ferebat, niger tanquam corvus} "but he was as tough as horn, carried his age well, and was as black as a crow" [Satyricon 43]; {Ceterum in promulsidari asellus erat Corinthius cum bisaccio positus, qui habebat olivas in altera parte albas, in altera nigras} "On the tray stood a donkey made of Corinthian bronze, bearing panniers containing olives, white in one and black in the other" [Satyricon 31]; {Pro calculis enim albis ac nigris aureos argenteosque habebat denarios} "for instead of black and white pieces, he used gold and silver coins" [Satyricon 33]; {Puer autem lippus, sordidissimis dentibus, catellam nigram atque indecenter pinguem prasina involuebat fascia, panemque semissem ponebat supra torum, ac nausia recusantem saginabat} "He was playing with a little black bitch, disgustingly fat, wrapping her up in a leek-green scarf and teasing her with a half-loaf of bread which he had put on the couch; and when from sheer nausea, she refused it, he crammed it down her throat" [Satyricon 64]; {sed chaos et nigro squalentia pumice saxa // gaudent ferali circum tumulata cupressu} "But chaos, volcanic black boulders // Of pumice lie Happy within their drear setting of cypress"[Satyricon 120]; {intravit delubrum anus laceratis crinibus nigraque veste deformis} "a hideous crone with disheveled hair, and clad in black garments which were in great: disorder, entered the shrine" [Satyricon 133]. The term {ater} is attested only once and it is used in a figurative, poetical sense: {et vatis fides // Calchantis atro dubia pendebat metu} "the honor of Calchas // The prophet, hung wavering deep in the blackest despair" [Satyricon 89].
The same seems to be true for Gellius' language: {"fulvus" enim et "flavus" et "rubidus" et "poeniceus" et "rutilus" et "luteus" et "spadix" appellationes sunt rufi coloris aut acuentes eum quasi incendentes aut cum colore viridi miscentes aut nigro infuscantes aut virenti sensim albo illuminantes} "For fulvus, flavus, rubidus, poeniceus, rutilus, luteus and spadix are names of the colour red, which either brighten it (making it fiery, as it were), or combine it with green, or darken it with black, or make it luminous by a slight addition of gleaming white" [Attic Nights 2: 26].
We regard this as a matter of geographic distribution: the language of Apuleius, born in Africa, retains the archaic term {ater} in the meaning 'black', while in Rome it had already been replaced by {niger}.
Papahagi 1963: 614; Cunia 2010: 573; Dalametra 1906: 118; Goɫąb 1984: 231. Polysemy: 'black / poor / unfortunate / bad'. Papahagi also mentions the word nˈegr-u {négru} 'black' [Papahagi 1963: 748], but the only examples he cites are the phrase {dă-ńĭ un négru} 'give me a cup of Turkish coffee' and the toponym {Keátra-neágră}.
There are three documented expressions for 'black': nyar {niár}, ri {ri} and fosk {fosc}. The second one means 'ugly / bad / black', according to Bartoli, and can be found in the meaning 'black' only once: {l-avás el koláu̯r… spi̯atái̯te uṅ páu̯k… náu̯n-e ri…} "it has a colour… wait a moment… it is not black…" [Bartoli 2002: 240]. The third word is mentioned only by Cubich in his vocabulary [Bartoli 2002: 269] and in two contexts: {Jaime de vain vetrún, juálb, fosc, ruass, dole, garb} "We have wine old, white, black, red, sweet, gentle} [Bartoli 2002: 288-289]; {el jéra spuárc e fosc} "he was dirty and black" [Bartoli 2002: 288]. The first word is written down by Ive from Udina and it means 'black' without any doubts ({fúrme un páuk de pun juálb e un páuk de niár} "we will make some white bread and some brown (literally 'black')" [Bartoli 2002: 297-298]; {túnte tiáste de píre blánke e niáre} "a multitude of white and black sheep" [Bartoli 2002: 299-300]), so we choose it for the list. The form nyar {niár} is a "dalmatianized" borrowing from Venetian.
Cf. some examples: {come procede innanzi da l'ardore, // per lo papiro suso, un color bruno // che non è nero ancora e 'l bianco more} "E'en as proceedeth on before the flame // upward along the paper a brown colour, // which is not black as yet, and the white dies" [Inf. 25]; {un serpentello acceso, // livido e nero come gran di pepe} "a small fiery serpent, // livid and black as is a peppercorn" [Inf. 25].
The term ˈatr-o {atro} 'black' is used only three times in the Divine Comedy, always for rhyming purposes: {Li occhi ha vermigli, la barba unta e atra // e 'l ventre largo, e unghiate le mani //graffia li spirti ed iscoia ed isquatra} "Red eyes he has, and unctuous beard and black // and belly large, and armed with claws his hands; // he rends the spirits, flays, and quarters them." (about Cerberus) [Inf. 6]; {Piangene ancor la trista Cleopatra, // che, fuggendoli innanzi, dal colubro // la morte prese subitana e atra} "Still doth the mournful Cleopatra weep // because thereof, who, fleeing from before it, // took from the adder sudden and black death" [Par. 6]; {né quantunque perdeo l'antica matre, // valse a le guance nette di rugiada, // che, lagrimando, non tornasser atre} "Nor whatsoever lost the ancient mother // availed my cheeks now purified from dew, // that weeping they should not again be darkened" [Purg. 30]. It is once attested in the figural meaning in his minor work: {poi non mi sarebb'atra la morte} "For then that death would not seem black to me" [Rime 103].
Voinova et al. 1989: 697. There are two terms for black: nˈeɣɾ-u {negro} and pɾˈet-u {preto} [Voinova et al. 1989: 697]. The search within [CdP 2016] shows that these terms are partly synonyms, but there is a distinct tendency to use the old term {negro} in collocations or in a figural sense ('bad, unlucky'), while the new term {preto} is used mostly with concrete terms, cf. the distribution of combinatory according to the Corpus (proper names are mostly excluded): {Mar negro} 'Black Sea', {buraco negro} 'black hole', {mercado negro} 'black market', {fumo negro} 'black smoke', {humor negro} 'black humor', {chão negro} 'black soil', {corpo negro} 'blackbody' (a physical concept), {vulto negro} 'sulky face', {pó} 'black powder', {sangue negro} 'black blood', {livro negro} 'black book', {ano negro} 'bad year', {lista negra} 'blacklist', {vida negra} 'bad life', {raça negra} 'black race', {maré negra} 'oil spill' (literary 'black tide'), {terra negra} 'black earth', {massa negra} 'black mass of something', {peste negra} 'pest', {noite negra} 'black night', {população negra} 'black population' and {gato preto} 'black cat', {carro preto} 'black car', {chá preto} 'black tea', {lenço preto} 'black scarf', {bigode preto} 'black moustache', {pau preto} 'black wood', {minino preto} 'black boy', {vestido preto} 'black dress', {casaco preto} 'black coat', {chapéu preto} 'black hat', {cerveja preta} 'brown ale', {charrete preta} 'black cart', {barca preta} 'black boat', {espada preta} 'black sword', {seda preta} 'black silk', {gravata preta} 'black necktie', {saia preta} 'black skirt'. Both words can be used with such terms as {cor} 'color', {cabelo} 'hair', {ouro} 'gold', {quadro} 'blackboard', {veludo} 'velvet', {tinta} 'ink', {coloração} 'colouring', {plumagem} 'plumage' and some others. Evidently we deal with the situation when one term is being gradually replaced with another. Though the process is far from its final stage, we regard it as an innovation and include only {preto} into the list.
Genitive form: sˈaŋgʷɪn-ɪs {sanguinis}. Some examples are: {iam dudum sputo sanguinem} "I'm spitting blood already" [Mer. 138]; {adulescens quom sis, tum quom est sanguis integer, rei tuae quaerundae convenit operam dare} "When you are young, then, when the blood is fresh, it's right to devote your exertions to acquiring your fortune" [Merc. 550-551]; {Guttam haud habeo sanguinis} "I have not one drop of blood!" [Most. 508]; {iam nunc ego illi egredienti sanguinem exsugam procul} "Even now, as he comes forth, I'll suck out his blood at this distance" [Poen. 614].
The term krˈʊɔr {cruor} 'blood from a wound' is attested neither in Plautus' texts nor in Cato's.
Cf. some examples: {et sanguinis eruptionem utriculo admoto excipit diligenter} "Then she held a flask of leather against the wound and carefully collected the spurt of blood" [Met. 1: 13]; {ut per summam cutem roraverint parvulae sanguinis rosei guttae} "so that tiny drops of crimson blood moistened the skin" [Met. 5: 23]. Distinct from krˈʊɔr {cruor} 'blood from a wound': {et illa spongia de eo repente devolvitur eamque parvus admodum comitatur cruor} "and out flew the sponge, with a little trickle of blood" [Met. 1: 19].
Some examples are: {Elle rigavan lor di sangue il volto} "These did their faces irrigate with blood" [Inf. 3]; {vidine un'altra come sangue rossa} "another of them saw I, red as blood" [Inf. 17].
Genitive form: ˈɔsː-ɪs {ossis}. Cf. some examples: {ita mihi imperas ut ego huius membra atque ossa atque artua comminuam illo scipione quem ipse habet} "you bid me break in pieces his limbs, and bones, and members with that walking-stick which he himself is holding" [Men. 855-856]; {advenisti huc te ostentatum, cum exornatis ossibus} "Hast thee come hither to tempt me with thy decked out bones" [Truc. 270]; {ossa atque pellis sum miser a macritudine} "I'm but skin and bone through leanness" [Capt. 135].
Some examples are: {ut ossa tantum viduata pulpis nitore nimio candentia funestae cohaererent arbori} "and his body stripped to the bare bones which, gleaming a brilliant white, were left tied to the tree" [Met. 8: 22]; {flagro illo pecuinis ossibus catenato verberantes paene ad extremam confecerant mortem} "then they flogged me with one of those whips of theirs strung with sheepbones, until I was well-nigh dead" [Met. 8: 30].
Attested in Cubich's vocabulary [Bartoli 2002: 274]. The example is: {san joit fent alle uásse} "I get soaked to the skin" (literally "to the bones") [Bartoli 2002: 276].
Cf. some examples: {l'ossa del corpo mio sarieno ancora // in co del ponte presso a Benevento} "the bones of my dead body still would be // at the bridge-head, near unto Benevento" [Purg. 3]; {l'altr' era come se le carni e l'ossa} "the second was as if her flesh and bones" [Purg. 29].
Genitive form: pˈɛktɔr-ɪs {pectoris}. Polysemy: 'breast / female breast'. Cf. some examples: {Nebula haud est mollis aeque atque huius est pectus} "A mist is not so soft as is a pretty little bosom, upon my faith" [Cas. 847]; {abite et de via decedite, ne quem in cursu capite aut cubito aut pectore offendam aut genu} "get out of the way, lest I should hurt any person in my speed with my head, or elbow, or breast, or with my knee" [Curc. 281-282]; {pectus digitis pultat, cor credo evocaturust foras} "He strikes his breast with his fingers I fancy he's about to call his heart outside" [Mil. 202].
Distinct from mˈamː-a {mamma} 'female breast': {ita forma simili pueri, ut mater sua non internosse posset quae mammam dabat} "their own foster-mother, who gave the breast, was not able to distinguish them" [Men. 19-20]. The term sˈɪn-ʊs {sinus} 'bosom' is not attested in Plautus' texts.
Generic term for both male and female breast: {inter quos pectus et venter crustata crassitie relucitabant} "through which a muscular chest and stomach gleamed" (about man's breast) [Met. 6: 5]; {et pectus etiam palmis infestis tundere et faciem illam luculentam verberare incipit} "and began to torment herself more violently than before, pounding her breast and tearing her pretty face" (about woman's breast) [Met. 4: 25].
There are two documented expressions for 'breast': sin {sin} (glossed as Romanian sân [Capidan 1935: 265]) and ȶept {chi̯épt} (glossed as Romanian piept [Capidan 1935: 68]). Available contexts do not allow to differentiate between these words: {ạľ ạntrǫ un dinti ăn chi̯ept și murì} "a tine pierced his breast and he died" [Capidan 1928: 64]; {aľ tsǫnu chi̯ept} 'to resist' (literally "to hold one's chest") [Capidan 1928: 171]; {amă lę-mi ăn sinu tǫu̯} "take me to your chest" [Capidan 1928: 23]; {na-ts trei̯ meari și si li puń la noștri fitšor ăn sin căti ună meară di fitšor} "take three measures and put each on our boys' chests" [Capidan 1928: 96]; {mǫń ăn sin} "he has hands on his chest" (about a tawpie) [Capidan 1928: 188].
Kovačec 2010; Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 197; Byhan 1899: 242. Distinct from sir {sir} 'female breast' [Kovačec 2010; Byhan 1899: 338]. In Brdo the word štˈumig {ștúmig} 'stomach' can be used in the meaning 'breast' as well [Kovačec 2010].
DER 2004: 116; Bolocan et al. 1985: 272; Gancz 2015. Distinct from sɨn {sân}, which basically means 'female breast', but can be used in the generic meaning 'chest, breast' as well [DEaLR 2015]. Moldavian: pyept {piept} [Podiko 1973: 153; Borsh & Zaporozhan 1990: 83].
There are two documented expressions for 'breast': pyat {pi̯at}, translated by Bartoli as 'petto' and syaŋ {si̯áṅ}, translated by Bartoli as 'seno'. In Italian {seno} means 'female breast', while {petto} is breast in general. But the Dalmatian words do not seem to reflect this difference, cf. two contexts, in which Udina tells about his own breast: {el pi̯at me dúl fu̯artemi̯ánt} "My breast strongly hurts" [Bartoli 2002: 240] and {ju siante ke me dolúa el si̯áṅ} "I feel, that my breast hurts, here, at the front" [Bartoli 2002: 241]. So we have to treat these words as synonyms. The other example is {toč el pi̯át se vedúa} "all the breast is seen" [Bartoli 2002: 232].
Conrad 2015; Vital 2015; Pallioppi & Pallioppi 1895: 539. Distinct from sayn {sain} 'female breast' [Conrad 2015]. Apart from this term the Germanism brwɔst {bruost} 'breast' is used as well [Vital 2015].
Sanero 2015. Generic term for both male and female breast. Goes back to Latin {stomachus} 'gullet / stomach', which was borrowed from Ancient Greek {στόГƛ̣ГʁГ̄ГŁГʎ} 'gullet / stomach'; however, we do not regard this word as a borrowing, since the semantic shift 'stomach' > 'breast' took place already in Carmagnola.
Davico 2016. Generic term for both male and female breast. In the written language the form pˈɛtː-o {petto}, borrowed from the Standard Italian can be used as well. Distinct from stomˈi {stomì} 'stomach'.
Ercolani 1960: 305. Polysemy: 'breast / female breast'. Distinct from sẽn {sén}, which is used only in the expression {mèts' in sén} 'to lie down on one's breast' [Ercolani 1960: 397]. Marchigiano: pɛt {pètt} 'breast' [Pucci 2015].
Cf. some examples: {Come per sostentar solaio o tetto, // per mensola talvolta una figura // si vede giugner le ginocchia al petto} "As to sustain a ceiling or a roof, // in place of corbel, oftentimes a figure // is seen to join its knees unto its breast" [Purg. 10]; {due branche avea pilose insin l'ascelle; // lo dosso e 'l petto e ambedue le coste // dipinti avea di nodi e di rotelle} "two paws it had, hairy unto the armpits; // the back, and breast, and both the sides it had // depicted o'er with nooses and with shields" [Inf. 17]. Distinct from sˈen-o {seno} 'bosom', cf. {Cerca, misera, intorno da le prode // le tue marine, e poi ti guarda in seno, // s'alcuna parte in te di pace gode} "Search, wretched one, all round about the shores // thy seaboard, and then look within thy bosom, // if any part of thee enjoyeth peace!" [Purg. 6]; {come poté trovar dentro al tuo seno // loco avarizia, tra cotanto senno // di quanto per tua cura fosti pieno?} "how was it possible within thy breast // for avarice to find place, 'mid so much wisdom // as thou wast filled with by thy diligence?" [Purg. 22].
Esposito 2015; Russo 2015; Matarazzo 2015; Nagar 2015; Mancusi 2015; Musella 2015; Fattoruso 2015; Morelli 2015; Cerrone 2015; Alois 2015. Generic term for both male and female breast [Esposito 2015; Russo 2015; Fattoruso 2015; Alois 2015]. Apart from this term, the words sˈin-ǝ {sine} (pl.) and cˈicː-ǝ {zizza} (sg.) can also be used for the designation of the female breast. They have more familiar or vulgar connotations [Russo 2015; Nagar 2015; Mancusi 2015; Fattoruso 2015; Alois 2015].
Ballicu 2015; Pintus 2015; Casciu 2006: 320. Generic term for both male and female breast [Ballicu 2015]. Domus de Maria: pˈetː-u {pettu} 'breast' [Fadda 2015; Casciu 2006: 314]. Distinct from pitː-ˈur-a {pitturra} 'female breast' [Fadda 2015].
Valén 2015. Generic term for both male and female breast. In the colloquial speech for female breast the term tˈet-as {tetas} (plural) can also be used [Valén 2015].
Voinova et al. 1989: 119. Generic term for both male and female breast. Distinct from sˈɐy-u {seio} 'female breast' [Voinova et al. 1989: 119; Feyershtein & Starets 2005: 740; Cândido de Figueiredo II: 1001].
Coupier 1995: 1075. Distinct from sen {sen} 'female breast'. Distinct from tetˈe {teté} 'female breast', used in familiar speech or in baby talk [Coupier 1995: 1283].
EDCT 2014: 847. Generic term for human and animal breast. The most frequent term for 'breast' (25 occurences); much more rare are the terms mamˈel-ǝ {mamele} 'breast' (both male and female), which occurs 7 times [EDCT 2014: 673] and pˈoytr-ĩn-ǝ {poitrine} 'chest' with only 3 occurences [EDCT 2014: 866]. Distinct from gˈol-ǝ {gole} 'human throat / the front part of the neck / woman breast / animal mouth' [EDCT 2014: 555]. Distinct from sẽỹn {sein} 'bosom, space between a person's clothing and his chest' [EDCT 2014: 1014].
Robert-Collins 1989: 73; Rayevskaya 2013: 387. Used both for male and female breast. Distinct from sɛ̃ {sein}, which is applied mostly to female breast and from mamɛl {mamelle} 'female breast', which has a literary shade [Robert-Collins 1989: 73; Rayevskaya 2013: 387].
The basic term for 'to burn' was probably ˈuːr-ɛ-rɛ {urere}. Although it occurs in Plautus' texts only twice, once in passive voice: {Da illi cantharum, extingue ignem, si cor uritur, caput ne ardescat} "put out the fire, if his heart's in flames, that his head mayn't be burnt" [Persa 801-802] and once used figuratively: {calidum hoc est: etsi procul abest, urit male} "This is of a hot nature; although it is at a distance off, it scorches badly" [Most. 609], it is attested in this meaning already in 'Lex Aquilia' (3rd century BC) [OLD 1968: 2107]. In addition, it is attested in the derivates (kɔmb=ˈuːr-ɛ-rɛ {comburere} 'to burn up' and ɛks=ˈuːr-ɛ-rɛ {exurere} 'to burn out') in Plautus' plays: {tuos arbitratus sit, comburas, si velis} "let it be considered as your own; you to burn it if you like" [Asin. 766]; {Clam uxoremst ubi pulchre habeamus atque hunc comburamus diem} "where, unknown to my wife, we will erect the funeral pile ... and let us consume this day upon it" [Men. 152]; {Immo hasce ambas hic in ara ut vivas comburam, id volo} "No, but I'll burn both of these alive here upon the altar" [Rud. 68]; {At enim illi noctu occentabunt ostium, exurent fores} "But then at night they'll be singing before your threshold, and be burning down your door" [Persa 569]; {MEN. Ecce, Apollo mi ex oraclo imperat, ut ego illi oculos exuram lampadibus ardentibus. MAT. Perii, mi pater, minatur mihi oculos exurere} "MEN. Lo! by his oracle, Apollo bids me burn out her eyes with blazing torches. MAT. I'm undone, my father; he's threatening to burn my eyes out" [Men. 840-842]; {Quin inhumanum exuras tibi?} "What, to be burning mortuary sacrifice for yourself?" [Rud. 767]; {Si ligna et virgas non poteris vendere neque lapidem habebis, unde calcem coquas, de lignis carboreas coquito, virgas et sarmenta, quae tibi ustioni supererunt, in segete conburito. Ubi conbusseris, ibi papaver serito} "If you cannot sell your firewood and faggots, and have no stone to burn for lime, make charcoal of the firewood, and burn in the field the faggots and brush you do not need. Where you have burned them plant poppies" [De agri cultura 38].
Distinct from ɪn=kˈɛnd-ɛ-rɛ {incendere} 'to set on fire / to burn over': {Quid? me, volturi, tuan causa aedis incensurum censes?} "What, you vulture, do you suppose that for your sake I'm going to set my house on fire?" [Capt. 844-845]; {si istuc, ut conare, facis indicium tuom incendes genus} "If you attempt to do according as you are now showing signs, you will cause the conflagration of your family" [Trin. 675]; {Age sane igitur, quando aequom oras, quam mox incendo rogum?} "Well, come then, since you request what's fair, how soon am I to set fire to the pile?" [Men. 153]; {Ibi corrudam serito, unde asparagi fiant. Nam convenit harundinetum cum corruda, eo quia foditur et incenditur et umbram per tempus habet} "Plant there also the wild asparagus, so that it may produce asparagus; for a reed thicket goes well with the wild asparagus, because it is worked and burned over, and furnishes a shade when shade is needed" [De agri cultura 6]; {Semen maturum fit ad autumnum. Ita, cum sumpseris semen, incendito, et cum coeperit asparagus nasci, sarito et stercorato} "The seed ripens in autumn; when you have gathered it, burn over the bed, and when the asparagus begins to grow, hoe and manure" [De agri cultura 161]; {Post annum tertium quam severis, incendito vere primo; deinde ne ante sarueris quam asparagus natus erit, ne in sariendo radices laedas} "The third year after planting burn it over in the early spring; after this do not work it before the shoots appear, so as not to injure the roots by hoeing. In the third or fourth year you may pull asparagus from the roots; for if you break it off, sprouts will start and die off" [De agri cultura 161].
Distinct from aːrd-ˈeː-rɛ {ardere} 'to burn (intransitive)': {ardere censui aedis, ita tum confulgebant} "I fancied that the house was in flames" [Amph. 1067]; {Codicillos oleagineos et cetera ligna amurca cruda perspargito et in sole ponito, perbibant bene. Ita neque fumosa erunt et ardebunt bene} "Wet olive logs and other firewood with crude amurca and expose them to the sun so that they will absorb it thoroughly; with this treatment, they will not be smoky, but will burn well" [De agri cultura 130].
Distinct from the collocation {ignem facere} 'to make a fire': {Ignem ingentem fieri} "A large fire to be made" [Capt. 843]; {Inde ignem in aram} "Put fire on the altar" [Mil. 411]; {Ignem magnum hic faciam} "I'll be making a great fire here" [Rud. 767].
Cf. some examples: {in honorem dei scilicet qui et ipsas aquas urere} "respecting the god who can make even water burn" [Met. 5: 25]; {Nam si te vel modice meus igniculus afflaverit, ureris intime} "If the tiniest flame should touch you even lightly, you'll be badly burned" (in figurative meaning) [Met. 2: 7]. Distinct from krem-ˈaː-rɛ {cremare}, which occurs only once in the meaning 'to burn (alive)', cf. {ut primus vivam cremari censeret puellam} "that the girl should be burned alive" [Met. 6: 31]. Distinct from aːrd-ˈeː-rɛ {ardere} 'to burn (intransitive)': {Tunc de brachiorum suorum cita fatigatione conquesta procurrit ad focum ardentemque titionem gerens mediis inguinibus obtrudit usque} "Then complaining that her arms were too quickly tired, she ran to the hearth and chose a red-hot brand which she shoved between my haunches" [Met. 7: 28]; {plerique tamen ardentibus facibus proterrebant feras} "and they carried fiery torches to scare off the ravening wolves" [Met. 8: 16]; in figurative meaning: {At illa: "Opportune" inquit "ardenti prorsus isto meo pectori volentiam scilicet perpetraturae venitis"} "How opportune," she cried, "my heart is ablaze and here you come to do me a kindness" [Met. 5: 31]; {sed medullitus dolore commotus acerrimaeque bilis noxio furore perfusus exin flagrantissimi febribus ardebat} "felt the furious workings of poisonous bile, and began to burn with such fiery fevers that he seemed in need of soothing drugs" [Met. 10: 25].
Not attested. However, there are two terms for 'burn (intrasitive)': bruč-ˈua {bručúa} 'it burns' ({avás bruṡút tóč} "All burnt"; {ku͡ọṅ ke bručúa la prai̯ma nu̯át e-l prai̯mo dái̯ <...>} "When it was burning the first night and the first day <...>" [Bartoli 2002: 222]) and ardˈwor {ardu͡ọr} ({la lúṅ no potája ple ardu͡ọr} "The lamp can burn no more"; {la lói̯ṡa ardi̯ava búṅ} "The lamp burns good" [Bartoli 2002: 245]). Possibly, the first of them is used as transitive as well, but we have no contexts for it.
Old Italian EG:bruš-ˈa-re {brusciare} ~ a=bːruš-ˈa-re {abbrusciare}1
Some examples are: {ma perch' io mi sarei brusciato e cotto, // vinse paura la mia buona voglia} "but as I should have burned and baked myself, // my terror overmastered my good will" [Inf. 16]; {per tutto il tempo che 'l foco li abbruscia} "for all the time the fire is burning them" [Purg. 25].
Russo 2015; Musella 2015. Under the influence of Italian {bruciare} 'to burn' can be modified to bruš-ˈa {brucià} [Esposito 2015; Fattoruso 2015; Cerrone 2015] or a=bːruš-ˈa {abbrucià} [Cirillo 2015]. Distinct from a=pːičː-ˈa {appiccià} 'to set fire, to set light' [Russo 2015].
Leggio 2015; Miccichè 2015. Distinct from the obsolete term yard-ˈi-ɾi {jardiri} 'to burn', which is now used only in the context of the traditional wood oven [Miccichè 2015].
Viret 2013: 379-380. Along with this term, Viret also mentions fwaːʎ-ˈiː {fwâlyî} and kraːm-ˈaː {krâmâ}, without differentiating them. In another entry he translates fwaːʎ-ˈiː {fwâlyî} as 'to blaze (intransitive)', so we include only brüːl-ˈaː {brûlâ} and kraːm-ˈaː {krâmâ} in the list.
EDCT 2014: 73-74. Polysemy: 'to burn (transitive) / to burn (intransitive)'. Distinct from esčawf-ˈeː-r {eschaufer} 'to burn', used in the figurative meaning, for example, about love [EDCT 2014: 425]. The term {brusler} 'to burn' cannot be found in any of Chretien's works.
Some examples are: {quin ipsi pridem tonsor unguis dempserat} "Why, the other day, the barber had cut his nails" [Aul. 312]; {si hercle tu ex istoc loco digitum transvorsum aut unguem latum excesseris} "By my faith, if you budge a finger's breadth, or a nail's width from that spot" [Aul. 56-57].
Polysemy: 'nail / claw': {ab imis unguibus sese totam adusque summos capillos perlinit multumque} "then smeared all over herself from the tips of her toes to the crown of her head" [Met. 3: 21]; {Non enim ovum, quod scimus, illud; sed pinnis et unguibus et oculis et voce etiam perfectum edidit pullum} "and not the usual egg but a fully-fledged chick, with claws and feathers, an ominous portent, that with open eyes" [Met. 9: 33].
Cf. some examples: {e sì traevan giù l'unghie la scabbia, // come coltel di scardova le scaglie} "and the nails downward with them dragged the scab, // in fashion as a knife the scales of bream" [Inf. 29]; {di quella sozza e scapigliata fante // che là si graffia con l'unghie merdose} "of that uncleanly and dishevelled drab, // who there doth scratch herself with filthy nails" [Inf. 18].
Monti Barnocchi-Moscati 2016. There are two terms: ˈoɲː-a {ogna} 'nail' and rˈunč-u {runciu} 'claw / nail'. Since both can be applied to a human nail, cf. {L'omu c'ha cingue deta pe manu e gni detu c'ha n'ogna / u'runciu} "Man has five fingers on each hand, and each finger has a nail" [Monti Barnocchi-Moscati 2016], we treat them as synonyms.
Messina 2015; La Bua 2015. Ornato mentions the term ˈuŋgy-a {unghia} 'nail', which seems to be an Italianism [Ornato 2015]. Buscemi: ˈuɲː-a {ugna} 'nail' [Coccimiglio 2016].
Montoya Bolaños 2015; Franco Grande 1968: 847, 723; Fernández Armesto 1981: 730; Carré Alvarellos 1972: 1036, 861. The Spanish borrowing ˈuɲ-a {uña} 'nail' can be sometimes used as well [Montoya Bolaños 2016; Fernández Armesto 1981: 730].
The examples are: {nonne ex advorso vides, nubis atra imberque} "Black clouds and showers are coming on" [Merc. 878-879]; {Neque nubes omnes quantumst} "Nor as many as there are clouds" [Poen. 433].
Distinct from nˈɛbʊɫ-a {nebula} 'fog, cloud (of steam)': {ex spiritu atque anhelitu nebula constat} "of breaths and pantings a cloud is formed" [Amph. 233-234]; {Nebula haud est mollis aeque atque huius est pectus} "A mist is not so soft as is a pretty little bosom, upon my faith" [Cas. 847]; {quoius ego nebulai cyatho septem noctes non emam} "seven nights with whom I wouldn't purchase at a cupful of vapour" [Poen. 274]; {Sunt quae te volumus percontari, quae quasi per nebulam nosmet scimus atque audivimus} "There are some things about which we wish to inquire of you, which we ourselves know and have heard of as though through a cloud of mist" [Pseud. 462-463]; {nunc edepol demum in memoriam regredior, audisse me quasi per nebulam, Hegionem meum patrem vocarier} "do now at last recall to memory that I had heard, as though through a mist, that my father was called Hegio" [Capt. 1023-1024].
Late Classical Latin EG:nˈuːb-eːs {nubes} ~ nuːb-ˈiːɫ-ũ {nubilum}1
Some examples are: {Cedunt nubes et Caelum filiae panditur} "Thus the clouds parted, the Heavens opened, to welcome their daughter" [Met. 6: 6]; {Tuo nutu spirant flamina, nutriunt nubila, germinant semina, crescunt germina} "At your order breezes sigh, clouds yield nourishment, seeds quicken and seedlings grow" [Met. 11: 25]. Distinct from nˈɛbʊɫ-a {nebula} 'fog / mist / cloud (of sleep)': {in cuius hospitio nec fumi nec nidoris nebulam vererer} "at least there'll be no smoking fires or cooking fumes to fear" [Met. 1: 22]; {postremum iniecta somni nebula eoque} "At last they veiled him in the mists of sleep" [Met. 2: 30]; {eam crassaque soporis nebula cunctis eius membris perfunditur} "enveloping her entire body in a dense cloud of somnolence" [Met. 6: 21].
Sârbu & Frăţilă 1998: 240; Byhan 1899: 291. There is no word for 'cloud' either in Kovačec's dictionary or in the texts. Borrowed from Croatian {oblak} 'cloud'. Distinct from mˈǝɣl-a {mấɣla} (Žejane) 'fog' of Croatian origin [Kovačec 2010; Byhan 1899: 282].
Some examples are: {Come si volgon per tenera nube // due archi paralelli e concolori} "And as are spanned athwart a tender cloud // two rainbows parallel and like in colour" [Par. 12]; {Buio d'inferno e di notte private // d'ogne pianeto, sotto pover cielo, // quant' esser può di nuvol tenebrata} "Darkness of hell, and of a night deprived // of every planet under a poor sky, // as much as may be tenebrous with cloud" [Purg. 16].
Passerini Tosi 1989: 1486-1487. Distinct from nˈub-e {nube} 'cloud', which is used in higher style texts [Vitali 2015]. Distinct from nˈebːy-a {nebbia} 'fog' [Passerini Tosi 1989: 1710].
Corsaro 2015; La Mattina 2015. Salerno mentions the form nˈuul-a {nuula} [Salerno 2015]. Distinct from nˈɛȡː-a {negghia} 'fog' [Corsaro 2015; La Mattina 2015].
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