This feature allows to generate a graphic representation of the supposed genetic relationships between the language set included in the database, in the form of a genealogical tree (it is also implemented in the StarLing software). The tree picture also includes separation dates for various languages, calculated through standardized glottochronological techniques; additionally, a lexicostatistical matrix of cognate percentages can be produced if asked for.
The tree can be generated by a variety of methods, and you can modify some of the parameters to test various strategies of language classification. The pictures can be saved in different graphic formats and used for presentation or any other purposes.
This option displays the full description for the selected database, including: (a) the complete list of primary and secondary bibliographical sources for the included languages, including brief descriptions of all titles; (b) general notes on said languages, e. g. sociolinguistic information, degree of reliability of sources, notes on grammatical and lexical peculiarities of the languages that may be relevant for the compilation of the lists, etc.; (c) details on the transcription system that was used in the original data sources and its differences from the UTS (Unified Transcription System) transliteration.
This option, when checked, uses a set of different color markers to highlight groups of phonetically similar words in different languages with the same Swadesh meaning.
Phonetic similarity between two different forms is defined in the GLD as a situation in which the aligned consonants of the compared forms (usually the first two) are deemed «similar» to each other. In order for two consonants to be «similar», they have to belong to the same «consonantal class», i.e. a group of sounds that share the same place and a similar manner of articulation. The current grouping of sounds into sound classes can be found here.
Accordingly, the aligned forms undergo a process of «vowel extraction» (all vowels are formally assumed to belong to «class H», together with «weak» laryngeal phonemes), and the individual consonants are then converted to classes, e. g. dog → TK, drink → TRNK (in comparisons, only the first two consonants will be used, so, actually TR), eat → HT (word-initial vowel is equated with lack of consonant or «weak» consonant), fly → PR (l and r belong to the same class) and so on.
If both of the first two consonants of the compared forms are found to correlate, i.e. belong to the same class, the words are deemed similar (e. g. English fly and German fliegen both have the consonantal skeleton PR). If at least one differs, the words are not deemed similar (e. g. English tooth → TT and Old Norse tɔnn → TN, although they are etymological cognates, will not pass the similarity tense because of the second position).
In most cases, checking this option will highlight phonetically similar forms that are also etymological cognates and share the same numeric cognation indexes. Occasionally, however, the checking will also yield «false positives» (accidentally phonetically similar forms that do not share a common origin) and «false negatives» (phonetically dissimilar forms, not highlighted, but actually cognate). It should be noted that one should never expect this method to yield a 100% accurate picture of etymological cognacy. Rather, the method is useful for the following goals: (a) assess the amount of phonetic change that took place between related languages; (b) give a general idea of the degree of closeness of relationship for those languages where phonetic correspondences have not yet been properly established; (c) assess the average number of «chance similarities» that may arise between different languages.
The last task is particularly instructive if the «Highlight...» option is used between two different languages from different databases, i.e. not related to each other or distantly related: in most cases, it will yield around 2-3 accidental color highlights, but occasionally, the count may go as high up as 5 or 6.
This option unfolds all of the notes that accompany the individual forms in the database. Sometimes these notes only consist of a basic reference to the bibliographical source, but at other times, they can be quite expansive, which makes browsing through the wordlist quite cumbersome. By default, the notes stay hidden (each note can also be opened separately by clicking on the sign next to the word).
Callaghan 1970: 53. Polysemy: 'all / all of it / all of them'. Word class: intransitive verb and particle. Secondary synonym: hˈanːa 'alone / just, only / all / by oneself' (intransitive verb and noun; cf. the following example for the meaning 'all': "That's all I know") [Callaghan 1970: 17].
Callaghan 1965: 98. Polysemy: 'every / all / everybody'. Word class: intransitive verb and noun. Distinct from ʔawˈeːcu 'just / only / nothing but / to the extent that / all' (particle) [Callaghan 1965: 174]. Judging from the following examples, the meaning 'all (omnis)' is expressed by mˈuʔe, while 'all (totus)' is ʔawˈeːcu: ʔawˈeːcu t̪ʼˈupʂeti ʂˈawːute 'All she had was one short piece' [Callaghan 1965: 174], maʔˈuːnuc mˈuʔec kost̪ˈaːlat̪ ʂˈikːan 'Put all those apples in the sack' [Callaghan 1965: 123].
Callaghan 1984: 140. Polysemy: 'all / the whole / everything / every'. Word class: noun. Alternative candidate: heni-k 'all' - plural form of heni- 'much, a lot / many, lots of / enough / too much' [Callaghan 1984: 36-37]. Both words can be used in diagnostic contexts for 'all = omnis'. Cf. the following examples: kanːiʔ ciːsɨm heniːkoc miwkoc "I see all the Indians" [Callaghan 1984: 37], sɨkːek melːak "They're all the same size" [Callaghan 1984: 93], taykop sɨkːek "They're all running" [Callaghan 1984: 140].
Callaghan 1987: 200. Polysemy: 'all / everything / the whole / every'. A second possible candidate is ʔoksa-pa- ~ ʔokse-pa- 'all (of something) / all (of a group)' [Callaghan 1987: 280].
Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 16. Word class: noun. A West Central dialect form, although not marked as such in the dictionary. Corresponding East Central form is ʔayt̪u- 'all' [Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 21]. Both šˈokːe-t̪ːi- and ʔayt̪u- can function as 'all = omnis' and 'all = totus'. The dictionary also lists the following stems: hˈokːe-t̪ːi- 'all' [Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 4], sˈukːe- 'all' [Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 15], šˈokːe- 'all' [Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 16]. While West Central šˈokːe-t̪ːi- and East Central ʔayt̪u- are confirmed by numerous textual attestations in [Freeland & Broadbent 1960] and [Berman 1982], none of the other forms for 'all' is attested in the published texts.
Broadbent 1964: 286. Word class: noun. Secondary synonym: t̪oːkoː- (noun) 'all / much / many' [Broadbent 1964: 275]. Numerous textual attestations in [Broadbent 1964] leave no doubt that ʔayt̪uː- is the main word for both 'all = omnis' and 'all = totus'.
Callaghan 1965: 160. Polysemy: 'ashes / white ashes from an ordinary fire / dust'. Word class: noun. Cf. pˈoːt̪el 'white ashes from a forest fire / cotton from willow tassels?' [Callaghan 1965: 110].
Callaghan 1970: 65. Polysemy: 'covering / thin bark, such as willow bark / grass leaf (adhering to stalk)'. Word class: noun. Bodega Miwok does not have a generic word for bark. Instead, two words are used: ʂˈapːa for thin bark and ʂˈimːe for thick bark. We list both words as quasi-synonyms.
Callaghan 1970: 95. Polysemy: 'to be large / to be important' (glossed as 'to be big' in the English - Bodega Miwok section [Callaghan 1970: 106]). Word class: intensive intransitive verb. Morphological analysis: verbal root ʔˈomo- [Callaghan 1970: 95], verbal suffix -tak 'intensifier' [Callaghan 1970: 77].
Callaghan 1965: 169. Glossed as 'to be big, large'. Word class: intransitive verb. Secondary synonym: ʔˈudi 'to be head of something / to be foremost / to be great, outstanding / to be huge' (intransitive verb) [Callaghan 1965: 190].
Callaghan 1984: 149. Polysemy: 'big / wide / high, elevated (metaphorical)'. Word class: adjective. The form teme- is attested in both Jackson Valley and Lockford dialects, but the Jackson Valley dialect additionally has a rare variant temːe-.
Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 24. Polysemy: 'big / a big one'. Word class: noun. Derived from ʔˈɨtːɨ- 'much / many' [ibid.] with the augmentative suffix -tːi- [Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 19]. Secondary synonym: ʔˈɨtːɨ-kɨt̪a- 'big' [Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 24], derived from the same root.
Broadbent 1964: 291. Word class: noun. Contains the augmentative suffix -ːni- [Broadbent 1964: 121]. Secondary synonym: ʔonaːčɨ- 'big' (cf. the verb ʔonaːč- 'to be very...; to ... hard') [Broadbent 1964: 293]. Textual attestations in [Broadbent 1964] show that ʔoya-ːni- is the basic word for 'big'.
Callaghan 1984: 21. Polysemy: 'bird / small birds'. Word class: noun. Secondary synonym: toloːci- 'bird (generic) / migratory geese?' "AM frequently used this word. MW claims it is only Northern Sierra Miwok. CHM gives 'junco, Junco'" [Callaghan 1984: 158].
Callaghan 1987: 150. The word is derived from mičeːma- 'wild meat'. On p. 146 Callaghan suggests that mičeːma-ti- contains the 'animal suffix' -mati- (does this imply a case of haplology?) This word, as well as mičeːma- 'wild meat' itself, is peculiar to Fiddletown dialect. Other dialects (Camanche and Ione) use another word for 'bird': t̪oloːči- [Callaghan 1987: 218].
Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 1. Word class: noun. Alternative candidate: šˈɨːlet̪ɨ- 'bird' (derived from šɨlˈeːt̪- 'to fly', q.v.) [Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 16]. There is no way to decide which of these words is the basic term for 'bird' in Central Sierra Miwok.
Callaghan 1965: 91. Polysemy: 'to bite / to bite (said of one fish) / to take a bite / to sting (said of an insect)'. Word class: semelfactive transitive verb.
Callaghan 1987: 99. Glossed as 'to bite (dog, spider, mosquito)'. Different from mačːa- 'to bite on something (like cloth), get a hold of something with teeth' (peculiar to Fiddletown dialect) [Callaghan 1987: 143].
Freeland & Broadbent 1960: 6. Word class: verb. Alternative candidate: kasˈɨːt- 'to bite (snake or dog)' [ibid.]. Cf. also yˈɨlːa- 'to bite with poison (snake)' [ibid.]. It is hard to make out the exact semantic difference between yˈɨlːɨ- and kasˈɨːt- from the available occurences of these verbs in Central Sierra Miwok texts. Cf. the following examples: 'As she [Bear] nibbled she bit (yˈɨlːet̪) her [Deer] in the neck' (East Central dialect) [Berman 1982, text VIII, 13]; 'The dragons are growling, and the woman scolds them when they try to bite (kasˈɨːtɨːt̪aːnaːš)' [Berman 1982, text I, 8]; 'That is Serpent. He bites (kˈasːɨtˌiʔ).' [Berman 1982, text III, 10]; '...there were dreadful Things that snapped (kasˈɨtːanɨk) at him. They were the kind that eat people.' [Berman 1982, text III, 37]. We tentatively choose yˈɨlːɨ- mainly because of external correspondences in other Sierra Miwok languages.
Broadbent 1964: 241. Word class: verb. Secondary synonym: yɨt̪m- 'to bite', listed only in the English - Southern Sierra Miwok section of the dictionary [Broadbent 1964: 303].
Callaghan 1970: 45. Glossed as 'to be black'. Word class: intransitive verb. Morphological analysis: verbal root lˈok- [ibid.], -Vːt̪a 'adjective suffix found on several color words' [Callaghan 1970: 102].
Callaghan 1987: 120. Polysemy: 'black / dark / black or dark brown (eye)'. Contains the adjectival suffix -VCːi- 'color formative' [Callaghan 1987: 302]. Cf. kulːa- 'coals, charcoal'.
Broadbent 1964: 276. Word class: noun. Alternative candidates: t̪uh-uhːi- 'black', from the same root [ibid.]; kul-ulːi- 'black' (derived from kulːa- 'charcoal') [Broadbent 1964: 248]. Textual attestations: t̪uːhi- (black horse) [Broadbent 1964, text 13, (8)], t̪uh-uhːi- (black maidenhair fern roots, used for basketry) [Broadbent 1964, text 1, (72-74)]. kul-ulːi- is not attested in the published texts.
Callaghan 1984: 68. Word class: noun. The form kǝcǝcːǝ- is common to both Jackson Valley and Lockford dialects. Variants: kǝcǝc (Jackson Valley), kǝcːǝc (Lockford).
Callaghan 1970: 71. According to [Callaghan 1970], possibly borrowed from Lake Miwok t̪ˈena 'chest', but in [Callaghan 2014: 401] Bodega and Lake Miwok words are treated as cognates.
Callaghan 1965: 135. Glossed as 'chest'. Word class: noun. Alternative candidate: t̪ʼˈeːle 'breast' (borrowed from River Patwin tʼˈeːli 'chest, breast of bird') [Callaghan 1965: 147]. Distinct from mˈuː 'milk / breast / teat' [Callaghan 1965: 97].
Callaghan 1984: 49. Glossed as 'chest'. The additional meaning 'breasts' is given with a question mark. Word class: noun. Distinct from muː- (Jackson Valley), muːsu- (Jackson Valley, Lockford) 'breast / nipples' [Callaghan 1984: 99]. Cf. also nucu- 'chest' (Jackson Valley, "MW says no such word") [Callaghan 1984: 111].
Callaghan 1970: 53. Glossed as 'breast (woman or man)'. Word class: noun. We list t̪ˈena and mˈuː as technical synonyms, since the meaning of the latter is given as generic, not restricted to 'woman's breast' as in the other Miwokan languages.
Callaghan 1970: 61. Polysemy: 'to burn (wood, etc.) / to put something in the fire / to build (a fire)'. Word class: perfective transitive verb. Morphological analysis: verbal root pˈučːa- 'to burn / to build (a fire)' [ibid.], verbal suffix -ti 'perfective' [Callaghan 1970: 77].
Callaghan 1965: 43. Word class: causative transitive verb. Derived from the intransitive verb hˈulih 'to burn, blaze, burn up' [ibid.]. Alternative candidate: yˈu(ː)l-en 'to start (a fire) / to burn / to burn off' (semelfactive transitive verb) [Callaghan 1965: 53]. Cf. also cˈuːp 'to set on fire' (semelfactive transitive verb; also used as an intransitive verb with the meaning 'to get badly burned (said of a person, clothes, or meat)') [Callaghan 1965: 16].
Callaghan 1987: 257. Polysemy: 'to build a fire / to burn something / to burn down'. Derived from wɨke- 'fire' q.v. Cf. also ʔampu- 'to burn' [Callaghan 1987: 263] (the only example in the dictionary is: lot̪ːesaːkɨʔ kikːɨʔ ʔampat̪ "boiling water burned me").
Broadbent 1964: 234. Polysemy: 'to light a fire / to tend a fire / to burn, tr. / to cremate'. Word class: verb. Informants: Castro Johnson, of Mariposa; Rose Watt, of Usona; Emma Lord, of Usona. Derived from huyːu- 'fire', q.v. Secondary synonyms: wɨːk- 'to light a fire / to burn, tr.' (informant: Chris Brown, a speaker of Yosemite dialect; related to wɨke- 'fire' in the speech of the same informant) [Broadbent 1964: 285], wɨleː-na- 'to burn, tr.' (with -na- 'causative') [Broadbent 1964: 284].
Broadbent 1964: 227. Polysemy: 'feather / finger- or toenail'. Word class: noun. The word for 'claw' is not attested in the dictionary, but one textual attestation [Broadbent 1964, text 14, (118)] confirms that halaː- can be used for 'claw' as well.
Callaghan 1965: 95. Word class: noun. Also functions as the intransitive verb 'to be cloudy'. Cf. mˈolːe 'shade / shadow / reflection in the water' [ibid.].
Callaghan 1984: 97. Glossed as 'cloudy / shade' on p. 97, but as 'cloud' in the English - Plains Miwok section [Callaghan 1984: 242]. The meaning 'cloud' is also confirmed by the following textual example: moːliʔ tɨsʔe "The clouds are breaking up" [Callaghan 1984: 165]. Word class: adjective and noun. Related to the transitive verb molːi- 'to shade' [Callaghan 1984: 97].
Callaghan 1970: 41. Polysemy: 'to be cool, cold / to be freezing' (used with objects and the weather). Word class: intransitive verb. Distinct from ʂˈil-um 'to be cold' (person or weather) [Callaghan 1970: 67].
Callaghan 1965: 137. Glossed as 'to be cold (said of an object or the weather)'. Word class: semelfactive intransitive verb. Also used as the noun 'a cold' (a loan shift from English). Distinct from t̪ˈiːʂ-wa 'to be cold (said of a person)' [ibid.].
Callaghan 1984: 152. Glossed as 'cold / cool (water)'. Word class: adjective. The word has two variant pronunciations: tǝlːǝli- (Jackson Valley, Lockford) and telːeli- (Lockford). Contains an adjective formative -ːVC2i- [Callaghan 1984: 223].
Callaghan 1987: 229. Glossed as 'cool (things, weather)', but translated as 'cold' in the example taːlɨmeʔ taplaʔ "cold board". No other word with the meaning 'cold', applicable to objects, is attested in the dictionary.
Berman 1982: 128. Word class: noun. Berman's informant John Kelly preferred the form tˈalːɨmɨ- [ibid.]. The word for 'cold' is absent from [Freeland & Broadbent 1960].
Callaghan 1970: 96. Word class: intransitive verb (with locative). Secondary synonyms: ʔˈonːa 'to come / to arrive' (intransitive verb) [Callaghan 1970: 95], wˈila 'come! / come on!' (intransitive verb, imperative) [Callaghan 1970: 82]. Illustrative sentences in the dictionary show that ʔˈoːni is used more frequently than ʔˈonːa.
Callaghan 1965: 187. Polysemy: 'to come / to appear / to come to pass, happen'. Word class: iterative intransitive verb. Secondary synonym: cˈokt̪e 'to come from an unseen spot / to go along, come along, follow / to come through (with objective of place) / to become (with instrumental)' (semelfactive intransitive and transitive verb) [Callaghan 1965: 14].
Callaghan 1984: 197. Word class: intransitive verb. An alternative candidate is ʔoːni- 'to come / to approach, get near / to arrive, get somewhere' [Callaghan 1984: 213]. The two verbs can occur in identical contexts, cf. taːwɨm ʔoːniʔːacʔis or taːwɨm ʔǝnːǝʔːacʔis 'I think he's coming' (Jackson Valley) [Callaghan 1984: 197].
Callaghan 1965: 51. Polysemy: 'to die / to be dead / to be dark (said of the moon) / to do something heartily'. Word class: semelfactive intransitive verb. Also functions as the noun 'death'. Cf. cˈaːm 'to fade away, like a flower which is through blooming / to die away / to wear out' (semelfactive intransitive verb) [Callaghan 1965: 11], cognate to the Eastern Miwok verb 'to die'. The earlier meaning 'to die' for Lake Miwok cˈaːm is suggested by ʔˈelay cˈaːm 'stillbirth', lit. "child dead" [ibid.].
Callaghan 1965: 25-26. Word class: noun. This word was borrowed from Lake Miwok into Patwin, Wappo and most Pomo languages. The Miwok origin of the word is clear in view of its preservation in the geographically remote Yosemite dialect of Southern Sierra Miwok.
Broadbent 1964: 224. Polysemy: 'dog / pet / guardian spirit of shaman'. Word class: noun. Yosemite dialect had another word: hayu- 'dog' [Broadbent 1964: 226].
Build treei